Chapter 2     Chapter 4

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CHAPTER THREE

BEYOND ISLAM: HERMENEUTICAL TERMINOLOGY
IN THE BOOK OF CERTITUDE
      Shouldst thou reflect upon these words [Rev. 1:16-171, thou wouldst find them to exemplify the utmost perspicuity and highest eloquence-nay, to have attained the furthest limit of refinement of expression (fasaha) and the last degree of elegant lucidity (balagha), as if the very suns of eloquence (shumus al-balaghat) had been generated from them, and the stars of perspicuity (anjum al-fasáhat) had risen and shone resplendently above their horizon.

      Know then that He [Jesus], Who in the realms of glory gave utterance to these words, wished to describe the signs of the One Who would appear by means of symbol and allusion lest the worldly (ahl al-majaz) should perceive His meaning.
      Bahá'u'lláh, The Essence of Mysteries.1

      As a Persian and hermeneut, Bahá'u'lláh enriches a spectacular legacy of exegesis by Persians. 'Most Qur'án commentators (mufassiriin)," observed Ibn Khaldún (d. 1406 C.E.),"2 were Persians. Long before the nineteenth century, how ever, classical quranic tafsír was abandoned in Persia in favor of more specialized works of commentary. "The well-known books of tafsír written in this period," observes Rafati,

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"are commentaries on a few verses or chapters of the Qur'án. A full, comprehensive commentary was not attempted."3 The Book of Certitude reflects this change. Although not a classical commentary in form, this Bábí tafsír exhibits wellattested exegetical procedures to be found in classical works.

      In this chapter, Bahá'u'lláh's hermeneutical terminology will be discussed in light of its Islamic heritage. A study of the technical terms the author employs will help to place The Book of Certitude within the overall tafsír tradition.

      In so doing, we shall be careful to avoid the pitfalls of reductionism. The reader should bear in mind that The Book of Certitude went far beyond Islam's doctrinal boundaries and, over a period of time, effected the exegetical creation of the Bahá'í Faith. Its Islamic roots planted in the matrix of Abrahamic tradition, The Book of Certitude is fed by the trunk of classical tafsír that had branched into Shí'í ta'wíl (symbolic interpretation). The work is the fruit of a complex exegetical tradition and represents Bahá'í ideology in its seed form.

      The Book of Certitude is a specialized work of exegesis. It treats the so-called "third part" of the Qur'án, eschatological verses requiring an interpreter (muavvil), one who performs ta'wíl. Properly speaking, therefore, Bahá'u'lláh's role is that of a muavvil.4 According to McAuliffe: "Although apparently synonymous in the earliest period, the significations of tafsír and ta'wíl began to diverge as the Qur'ánic sciences developed in the classical period. Tafsír remained the term of more limited denotation, often restricted largely to philosophical exegesis, while ta'wil connoted hermeneutical principles that sought to uncover deeper meanings in the text or to align the text with particular theological or philosophical orientations."5 McAuliffe's functional definition of ta'wíl equally applies to The Book of Certitude: the deeper meanings which Bahá'u'lláh draws out from quranic texts are aligned with the Bábí, rather than traditional Islamic, worldview.

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      Prime texts for ta'wíl are the "ambiguous" or "figurative" verses of the Qur'án, known as the mutashdbihat on the basis of Qur'án 3:7 (in its Shí'í reading, distinct from the Sunni reading): "It is He who sent down upon thee the Book, wherein are clearly formulated verses, those are the essence of the Book, and others ambiguous (mutashábihát) ... And none knows its interpretation (ta'wíl) save God and those firmly rooted in knowledge."6 The phrase, "those firmly rooted in knowledge," is understood by Shí'ís to refer to the Imams of the lineage of Muhammad, each of whom (be they the Imami Shí'í twelve, or the Isma'ílí seven, or the Zaydi five) is believed to have possessed divine enlightenment (inspiration, not revelation).

      In typical Shí'í fashion, Bahá'u'lláh adduces the Shí'í reading of this verse. He does so twice, near the beginning and toward the end of The Book of Certitude.7 Hts application of the Shí'í reading, however, is atypical. The verse is clearly self-referential with regard to Bahá'u'lláh's authority to interpret. In Shí'ísm, the authority to elucidate the Qur'án is vested in the Imams. Bahá'u'lláh has not contested this traditional investiture. He has, nevertheless, passed beyond the Imams. This arrogation of authority to interpret is a major structural element in Bahá'u'lláh's transformation of ta'wíl into realized eschatology.

THE PEOPLE OF TAFSÍR
AND THE COMMON PEOPLE

      It has already been pointed out that, as an exegete., Bahá'u'lláh stands within the classical tafsír tradition. His heritage is thoroughly Islamic, in the broadest sense. At the same time, his work is steeped in Shí'ísm. In the scholastic sense, Bahá'u'lláh's vocation as a Qur'án commentator was entirely extra-curricular. Elements of his commentary were in fact counter-curricular. The Bahá'í idea that the quranic

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expression "Seal of the Prophets" does not indicate finality of revelation, but rather finality of prophecy prior to a cycle of fulfillment, while grounded in tafsir, actually runs counter to it.8 It is also apparent that The Book of Certitude was in some respects an anti-text to that tradition.

      There are many indications of this antithetical edge, particularly with regard to the Qur'án commentators themselves, of whom Bahá'u'lláh was critical. He rejects the authority and invalidates the pronouncements of the "commentators of the Qur'án" ('ulamáy-i tafsír).9 In his eyes, it appears that the institution (loosely speaking) of the Shí'í sacerdotal order stood as a collective Caiaphas over the Bábí holocaust. It should be added that Bahá'u'lláh respected those highly principled divines who were not persecutors. This counterbalancing positive evaluation comes out in other texts, however.10

      In terms of a typology of tafsír, this critical attitude towards the ulama aligns The Book of Certitude somewhat with Sufi tafsír.11 Neither is such a critical stance unknown in the eschatological traditions of Islam. The great Shí'í hadíth master al-Kulayni (d. 939-40 C.E.) cites the Sixth Imam, Jafar al-Sadiq (d. 765 C.E.), who in turn cites an agraphon (non-canonical saying) of Jesus: "Jesus, Son of Mary, said: 'Woe to the wicked ulama! How the fire will blaze for them!'"12 This vituperative vaticination is echoed and amplified in The Book of Certitude. In the opening (on the first page in fact), Bahá'u'lláh alludes to a tradition known as the "hadíth of Kumayl"—a tradition which reappears from time to time throughout the book. The passage below is taken from Ali-Kuli Khan's translation, because it is the more literal rendering in this particular case:
The quintessence of this chapter is that travellers in the Path of Faith and seekers for the Cup of Assurance must sanctify and purify themselves from all material things; that is, the ear from hearing statements, the heart from doubts which

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pertain to the veils of glory (az qalb-ra zunun-at-i muta'alliqih bi-subuhat-ijalal).13

      Authority and power resided in the sacerdotal order of Shí'í Islam. Knowledge and devotion, in theory, certify this institutional pastoralism over all things religious. The genitive metaphor "veils of glory" ties in with the idea that knowledge itself is a veil. Excessive learning can lead to an overweening hubris that is vigilant and coercive. Only rarely did divines benefit from Bahá'u'lláh's insights as each was blinded by his own knowledge. Bahá'u'lláh speaks of "the mysteries of divine wisdom (Asrár-i hikmat-i rúhániyyih), hidden ere now beneath the veil [lit., veils] of glory (bi subuhát-i jaldl)."14 It was not so much pride as it was persecution that Bahá'u'lláh objected to. In his eyes, the turbans of the clergy were stained red in the bloodbath that engulfed the Bábís.

      Further on in The Book of Certitude, Shoghi Effendi translates the phrase subuhát-i jalál15 as Ali-Kuli Khan does. Bahá'u'lláh explicitly cites the tradition in his indictment of the ulama:
And, now, strive thou to comprehend the meaning of this sayung of 'Ali, the Commander of the Faithful: "Piercing the veils of glory, unaided." Among these "veils of glory" are the divines and doctors living in the days of the Manifestations of God, who, because of their want of discernment and their love and eagerness for leadership, have failed to submit to the Cause of God, nay, have even refused to incline their ears unto the divine Melody.16

      Bahá'u'lláh considers the problem of personal understanding of the Quran, equally constrained as it is illumined by the interpretation of the learned. It seems that Bahá'u'lláh was as critical of restriction of interpretation as he was of exclusive or unwarranted literal interpretation. He actually accuses the learned of his day of tahríf, of perverting the text of the Qur'án!17 Moreover, there was a hegemony of

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interpretive authority which the learned maintained. In Islamic history of thought, this exclusivism extended to philosphers as well. Averroes, for example, states:
In general, everything in these [quranic texts] which admits of allegorical interpretation can only be understood by demonstration. The duty of the 61ite here is to apply such interpretation; while the duty of the masses is to take them in their apparent meaning in both respects, i.e. in concept and judgement, since their natural capacity does not allow for more than that.18

      One source for this division may be the well-known hadíth of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is reported to have said: "The Book of God contains four things: the announced expression ('ibara); the allusion (ishdra); the hidden meaning related to the suprasensible worlds (latá'if); and the spiritual truths (haqá'iq). The literary expression is for the common people ('awámm); the allusion is for the elite (khawáss); the hidden meaning is for the friends of God [or saints] (awliyá'); and the spiritual truths are for the prophets (anbiyá')."19
      While it would be uncharacteristic of Bahá'u'lláh to contradict an established tradition such as this one, it is presumably elitism that Bahá'u'lláh attacks when he writes:
Heed not the idle contention of those who maintain that the Book and verses thereof can never be a testimony unto the common people (avamm), inasmuch as they neither grasp their meaning nor appreciate their value. And yet, the unfailing testimony of God to both the East and the West is none other than the Qur'án. Were it beyond the comprehension of men, how could it have been declared as a universal testimony unto all people?20

      In any case, Bahá'u'lláh believes that "the exalting of the illiterate faithful above the learned opposers of the Faith"21 is arcanely augured in the Qur'án. It is no surprise, therefore, that, in respect of audience, The Book of Certitude

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was populist. The recipient of The Book of Certitude, Hájí Mírzá Sayyid Muhammad Shirazi, was himself a merchant. One gets the distinct impression that Bahá'u'lláh is making every effort to talk to the reader and not speak beyond the reader's comprehension. Conceptually, Bahá'u'lláh rejected any notion of there being a privileged elite (al-khawáss) who alone could harvest pearls from the depths of the Qur'án. The Book of Certitude was not only conceptually, but linguistically populist as well. Written in the vernacular of the majority of his followers, a tafsír in Persian (rather than in Arabic) was far more accessible to the common people, the vast majority of whom were untutored and illiterate. Those who could read taught others the "proofs" established in The Book of Certitude.

      This powerful teaching tool invested the sympathetic reader with a sense of personal understanding of the Qur'án, which had long been the exclusive-domain of professional clerics. Even the text of the Qur'án is made accessible through Bahá'u'lláh's occasional translations into Persian of the verses he cites in Arabic. These are what might be thought of as Persian "targums" or edifying paraphrases of sacred text. The reader in English might be oblivious to this populist feature except for one passage in which Shoghi Effendi does translate the Persian paraphrase. In this instance, the sacred text is the Gospel (inArabic), not the Qur'án. After citing Matthew 24:29-31, Bahá'u'lláh introduces his paraphrase with the formula: "Rendered into the Persian tongue, the purport of these words is as follows: . . ."22

BAHÁ'U'LLÁH'S REVERENCE FOR THE QUR'ÁN

      It should come as no surprise that Bahá'u'lláh's respect for the Qur'án was heartfelt and genuine. Bahá'u'lláh was, after all, a Muslim. The Book of Certitude is infused with a spirit of reverence for the sacred text. Such reverence is to

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be distanced from the very critical statements Bahá'u'lláh makes regarding the Muslim clerics of his day. His praise of the Qur'án, though traditional, was not conformist. Bahá'u'lláh's heterodox ideology does not diminish his profound reverence for the text. He had his own insight into the deep structure of quranic revelation, and for the polysemy of the its symbols:
For it is evident that whoso hath failed to acknowledge the truth of the Qur'án hath in reality failed to acknowledge the truth of the preceding Scriptures ... Were We to expound its inner meanings and unfold its hidden mysteries, eternity would never suffice to exhaust their import, nor would the universe be capable of hearing them. God verily testifieth to the truth of Our saying!23

      This praise is double edged. Belief in the Gospel, according to such a view, is fully validated in acknowledging that the Qur'án comes from the same source of revelation. This is a Muslim perspective, not a Christian one. The eye that beholds a revelation from God in the former surely cannot be blind to the authenticity of the latter. Such logic suggests that he who believes in just one revelation believes in none. To be a true believer, and certainly to perfect one's faith, one must believe in all the revelations from God.

      This "all or none" logic is conceivably extendable into the future, in the event of a post-quranic revelation. But Islamic doctrine precludes such a possibility. Traditionally, the Qur'án is seen as completing the historical sequence of revelations. The Qur'án is the consummation and perfection of the revelatory process. If isolated from its context, Bahá'u'lláh's statement in the following passage stands in perfect conformity with such a view:
Behold, how lofty is the station, and how consummate the virtue, of these verses which He hath declared to be His surest

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testimony, His infallible proof, the evidence of His all-subduing power, and a revelation of the potency of His will. He, the divine King, hath proclaimed the undisputed supremacy of the verses of His Book over all things that testify to His truth. For compared with all other proofs and tokens, the divinely-revealed verses shine as the sun, whilst all others are as stars. To the peoples of the world they are the abiding testimony, the incontrovertible proof, the shining light of the ideal King. Their excellence is unrivalled, their virtue nothing can surpass. They are the treasury of the divine pearls, and the depository of the divine mysteries.... Through them floweth the river of divine knowledge, and gloweth the fire of His ancient and consummate wisdom.24

There are echoes here of the doctrine of the inimitability (i'jáz) of the Qur'án. Praise of the Qur'án in his own tafsír was also to be expected, as one of the formal characteristics of tafsír. There may also have been a more practical reason behind Bahá'u'lláh's reverential remarks.

      Without aspersing the sincerity of this eulogy of the Qur'án, Bahá'u'lláh may well have had a purpose similar to that of his predecessor, the Báb. As attested by the Báb himself, the Báb's claims to a new revelation were unfolded gradually, in this sequence: Gatehood (Bábíyya), Remembranceship (dhikriyya), Qá'imship (qá'imiyya), and finally Divine Manifestation (maghariyya).25 In the initial stages of his proclamation, the Báb had expressed his reverence for the Qur'án to soften the impact of his revolutionary (and abrogatory) claims. The Báb states, in retrospect, that in his first revealed book, the Qayyzim al-asmá,' (a tafsír on the Sura of Joseph), he had "enjoined the observance of the laws of the Qur'án, so that the people might not be seized with perturbation by reason of a new Book and a new Revelation and might regard His Faith as similar to their own."26

      With Bahá'u'lláh, the Qur'án is indeed confirmed, but relativized. Although exegetical consciousness typically

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extends the authority of ancient material, Bahá'u'lláh's commentary circumscribes the Qur'án at the same time. This ambivalent relationship to the Qur'án is seen in Bahá'u'lláh's praise of it as "the mightiest instrument and surest testimony for the seekers; a guide for the people until the Day of Resurrection."27 In Bahá'u'lláh's view, the advent of the Báb had precipitated the Day of Resurrection, thus eclipsing the primacy of the Qur'án. His express veneration of the Qur'án served to ameliorate the impact on the Muslim reader who, reading further on in The Book of Certitude, would encounter explicit traditions)28 (drawn from Islamic sources)29 alluding to post-quranic revelation and the implied supersedure of Islam in its present form. Cast in Islamic terms, the idea of a new revelation and lawcode was represented as the transformation of Islam, but an "Islam" beyond Islam.

THE QURAN'S EXOTERIC
AND ESOTERIC DIMENSIONS

      Ayoub states categorically: "The most important principle of Shí'í tafsír therefore is that'the Qur'án has an outer dimension (záhir) and an inner dimension (bátin); its inner dimension has yet another dimension, up to seven inner dimensions'."30 This cardinal principle of interpretation Ayoub considers unique to Shí'í tafsír. Two other unique characteristics of bcatini tafsír are postulated: that of jari (continuous relevance) and intibáq (analogic application). The principle of jari views history as darkly mirrored in revelation. Events in history have references in the Qur'án, hidden in its inner dimension (bátin). Esoteric interpretation is the key to discovering those special verses that disclose foreknowledge of an event. Ayoub cites a tradition which states in part: 'Were a verse to be revealed concerning a people, and were it to die with their death, nothing would remain of the Qur'án."31

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      A distinction should be drawn between bátin and bátiniyya. According to Hodgson, the bdtin as historically practiced among the bcatiniyya or Isma'iIis may be sytematically analyzed in terms of four essential notions: (1) batin ("a distinctive type ... of scriptural interpretation.... symbolical or allegoristic in its method, sectarian in its aims, hierarchically imparted, and secret")32; (2) ta'wil (the educing of the bdtin from the záhir); (3) khawass (the elite who know the bátin); and (4) taqiyya (keeping the bdtin secret).33 This paradigm does not square with Bahá'í notions.

      Bahá'u'lláh reflects an otherwise characteristic Shí'í hermeneutic toward the conclusion of The Book of Certitude:
It is evident unto thee that the Birds of Heaven and Doves of Etetnity speak a twofold language (du Bayán). One language, the outward language (zahir), is devoid of allusions (bi ramz), is unconcealed and unveiled; that it may be a guiding lamp and a beaconing light whereby wayfarers may attain the heights of holiness, and seekers may advance into the realm of eternal reunion. Such are the unveiled traditions and the evident verses already mentioned. The other language is veiled and concealed...34

      Positing the existence of an esoteric dimension in the Qur'án is one thing. Assessing its interpretive priority is another. In secular terms, what is the relative value of the profane versus arcane? Bahá'u'lláh sought to harmonize both the exterior and interior dimensions of the Qur'án. In his Tafsír on the Sura of the Sun, Bahá'u'lláh uses language similar to that of Sa'd al-Din al-Taftazani (d. 1389 or 1390 C.E.)35 and al-Ghazali (d. 1111 C.E.).36 in expressing the view that whoever takes the the outward sense only and forsakes the inward is ignorant (jáhil), while the one who accepts the inward sense without regard to the outward is oblivious (gháfil). Conversely, whoever takes the inward and balances it with the outward interpretation is a perfect (kamil) scholar

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('alim), in which case the scripture becomes catholic or complete (kalimat al-jami').37

      This philosophy of interpretation stands squarely within respected Islamic tradition, yet in practice it seems that commentaries which combined exoteric and esoteric interpretations were more the exception than the rule. Although Bahá'u'lláh has sought to make the Qur'án more accessible to the "common people," exegetical primacy still resides in the Messenger of God.

BAHÁ'U'LLÁH'S TECHNICAL TERMS FOR SYMBOLISM

      Bahá'u'lláh's hermeneutical terminology is based on polyvalence (multi-dimensionality of meaning) or polysemy (multiplicity of meanings), predicated on the Qur'án. This interpretive licence gives symbolical tafsír its broad scope and versatility. At the edge of that explicative range is the historical present, in which the voice of the divine incurs. It telescopes through centuries. Its fulfillment is predicated on symbols come alive, realized in iconic reenactment. The realized eschatology of The Book of Certitude depends not on bodily resurrection, but on the resurrection of symbols. These symbols had lain on the plain of the text as dry bones. Contemporarizing reinterpretation reinfuses the symbols with marrow, ideologically fleshing them with thew and sinew.

      With regard to polysemy, the discipline of rhetoric put forth semantic rationale for identifying incidences of figuration in scripture. Generally speaking, Bahá'u'lláh does not appeal to the "science" of Islamic rhetoric when explaining quranic figuration.38 He does, however, make considerable use of the appeal to absurdity-a rhetorical form of argumentation exercised by rhetoricians to overrule the literal sense of the text. Bahá'u'lláh's recourse to appeals to absurdity will be treated in the next chapter.

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In the passage below, which alludes to Qur'án 3:7.39 it appears that quranic symbolism, in Bahá'u'lláh's view of it, is predicated on three interoperative parameters: (1) figuration (nonliteral meaning); (2) polyvalency (multiplicity of meaning); (3) the authority to interpret (the production of meaning). Of these three, authority to interpret takes priority.
This is the divine standard, the Touchstone of God, wherewith He proveth His servants. None apprehendeth the meaning of these utterances except them whose hearts are assured, whose souls have found favour with God, and whose minds are detached from all else but Him. In such utterances, the literal meaning, as generally understood by the people, is not what hath been intended. Thus it is recorded: "Every knowledge has se enty meanings, of which only one is known amongst the people. And when the Qá'im shall arise, He shall reveal unto men all that which remaineth."40

      Although its textual justification is based on the assertions of figurization and multi-dimensionality of the text, the interpretation itself is still, in a sense, arbitrary, even if it is sound exegesis. Bahá'u'lláh's production of meaning (which for Bahá'ís is equated with the presumed intent of the Qur'án) is predicated on polyvalency of meaning which in turfi is justified by the existence of nonliteral meaning. In modern hermeneutics, the notion of authorial intention is so problematic that the idea is now treated as a fallacy. But in a religious worldview, the case may be otherwise. The result is still the same: from the sacred text, new meaning is derived in the name of the old. One of the primary functions of the Qá'im is to interpret. This interpretation is effected by revelation.

      Why were quranic prophecies for the most part ignored by rhetoric? One reason may be theological. The apocalyptic texts of the Qur'án formed part of a class of quranic material

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on which the classical commentators were disinclined to interpret. The first great exegete of the classical tafsír tradition, al-Tabari (d. 923 C.E.), maintains that for this class of verses, only God possesses true knowledge of their significance.41 Such verses comprise what is euphemistically referred to in Persian as "the silent Qur'án" (Qur'án-i sámit), requiring a divinely inspired interpreter.

      Throughout The Book of Certitude, Bahá'u'lláh expatiates on a range of apocalyptic themes, each of which was but "one of the mysteries hidden in the symbolic terms (ramzi az Asrár) 'resurrection,' 'judgment,' 'paradise,' and 'hell'."42 Among Bahá'u'lláh's hermeneutical terms, therefore, are ramz (pl., rumziz) and sirr (pl., Asrár). Two further hermeneutical terms are introduced in Bahá'u'lláh's stated purpose in revealing The Book of Certitude:
This servant will now share with thee a dewdrop out of the fathomless ocean of the truths treasured in these holy words, that haply discerning hearts may comprehend all the allusions (talwíhat) and the implications (isharat) of the utterances of the Manifestations of Holiness, so that the overpowering majesty of the Word of God may not prevent them from attaining unto the ocean of His names and attributes, nor deprive them of recognizing the Lamp of God which is the seat of the revelation of His glorified Essence.43

      So far, we have seen reference in The Book of Certitude to the terms symbol (ramz), secret (sirr), symbolic term or implication (talwih), and allusion (ishara).44 These terms appear to be more or less synonymous for Bahá'u'lláh. They also are nontechnical in that they lack the specificity which might decisively link them with a particular Islamic exegetical approach. Here, the presence of such terms does not demarcate discreet spheres of exegesis. Rather, they form a hermeneutical chain, bound by a common logic. They are only slightly differential in terms of nuance, as will be explained

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below. Bahá'u'lláh's terminology must therefore be seen within the set of assumptions one finds in The Book of Certitude. According to Bahá'u'lláh, incidences of figurative and symbolic discourse in the Qur'án are purposeful and have a special reason for requiring interpretation:
Know verily that the purpose underlying all these symbolic terms (kalimat-i marmuzih) and abstruse allusions (isharat-i mulghazih), which emanate from the Revealers of God's holy Cause, hath been to test and prove the peoples of the world; that thereby the earth of the pure and illuminated hearts may be known from the perishable and barren soil. From time immemorial, such hath been the way of God amidst His creatures, and to this testify the records of the sacred books.45

      The terms ishdra, talwih, sirr, and ramz recur throughout The Book of Certitude and are conceptually compatible with the old dichotomy of záhir and bátin (terms also employed in the text).

      Ramz (symbol, secret, mystery): Though ramz (pl., rumliz) derives from the Arabic verb ramaza, etymologically ramz is of Persian origin. Lexically, ramz is defined as "sign, nod, wink, motion, hint, allusion, intimation; allegory; riddle; symbol, symbolic figure, emblem, character; secret sign, code sign."46 In a work falsely ascribed to Qudama, Isbaq ibn Wahb defines ramz as "hiidden obscure meaning."47 Another rhetorician of the same period describes ramz as "cryptic language."48 An Arabic treatise on ramz was published in Cairo in 1972, adducing exemplars from the Qur'án.49 From all accounts, ramz is hidden. Although one can allude to it.50 a ramz must be discovered or deciphered.

      Elsewhere in Bahá'u'lláh's writings of the Baghdad period, there are special self-referential usages of ramz, possibly hinting at his undisclosed messianic consciousness. But such usages are outside of the purview of this discussion.

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      The personification of symbols, is, however, a crucial hermeneutical principle in The Book of Certitude. While metaphorical competence might succeed in detecting figuration, deciphering the symbolic code of the Qur'án is more a matter of identification. Each symbol is a kind of glass slipper. On whom does the symbolic shoe fit? The "veils of glory" mentioned above are identified by Bahá'u'lláh with the ulama. To discern the identity of the symbol and not just its meaning is an essential element of Bahá'í interpretation. Symbols have objective subjects but their referents are subjective objects. Symbols relate to persons, or to events, or to conditions that pertain to the world of humanity. Bahá'u'lláh stresses the "who" of the symbol and not just the "what."

      Sirr (secret, mystery): For Bahá'u'lláh, "symbol" (ramz) and "secret" (sirr) are synonymous. Sirr, however, is primarily a mystical term. "Both the singular and the plural [sirr and asrar]," writes Lambden, "are very common in Islamic esoterica, in Sufl texts and in Bábí/Bahá'í scripture. It often has the sense of 'secret' or 'mystery' as well as, on occasion, the inner dimension of human beings: their 'heart' or 'thought.'51 While the term ramz is common to both Islamic philosophy and mysticism, the term sirr is more frequently encountered in mystical contexts. It is disclosed to the seeker by virtue of capacity and purity of heart. Since sirr transcends reason, it is not subject to the constraints of reason.

      In the Sufistic Lexicon (Islihat al-sufiyya) of Abd al-Razzaq al-Qashani (d. 1330 C.E.), the "secret of the reality" (sirr al-haqiqa) means "that which the symbolic expression (ishára) touches upon."52 Bahá'u'lláh uses almost the identical expression, speaking of the divine inspiration he was experiencing: "Without word It unfoldeth the inner mysteries (ramz-i ma'áni), and without speech it revealeth the secrets of the divine sayings (Asrár-i tibydn) ... Upon the anemones of the garden of love, It bestoweth the mysteries

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of truth (Asrár-i haqá'iq), and within the breasts of lovers, It entrusteth the symbols of the innermost subtleties (daqá'iqi rumliz va raqáyiq-i án-rá[án = rumlizl)."53 The parallelism between Asrár and rumuz is apparent. In this passage, Shoghi Effendi renders these words, in translation, interchangeably.

      Possibly the most strikingly apt metaphor for "mystery" in The Book of Certitude is the pearl within the shell. Bahá'u'lláh refers to a quranic verse in which "pearls of mysteries" (la'áliy-i Asrár) lie hidden (maknún).54 He extols all the verses of the Qur'án: "They are the treasury of the divine pearls (kanz-i la'dliy-i ildhiyyih) and the depository of the divine mysteries (makhzan-i Asrár-i ahadiyyih)."55 Here "pearls" and "mysteries" are employed as parallel imagery. An independent attestation reinforces this parallelism: "In the disconnected letters of the Qur'án the mysteries of the divine Essence (Asrár-i huviyyih) are enshrined, and within their shells (dar sadaf) the pearls of His Unity (la'áliy-i ahadiyyih) are treasured."56 The same image is used by Bahá'u'lláh of himself, after speaking of the heart's potential to "become the treasury of the mysteries of divine knowledge": "Notwithstanding all that We have mentioned, how innumerable are the pearls (laá'tili bi-shumar) which have remained unpierced in the shell of Our heart (dar sadaf-i qalb)!"57

      It is important to appreciate that these "mysteries" are not only to be fathomed and understood, but are to be realized and experienced as well: "Then shalt thou witness all these mysteries (jami'i ín Asrár-ra) with thine own eyes. O my brother! Take thou the step of the spirit, so that, swift as the twinkling of an eye, thou mayest flash through the wilds of remoteness and bereavement, attain the Ridván of everlasting reunion, and in one breath commune with the heavenly Spirits."58 In this striking passage, the entire crux of exegesis in The Book of Certitude becomes apparent. "Bereavement"—possibly a reference to the martyrdom of the Báb, felt as a personal loss by the uncle of the Báb whom

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Bahá'u'lláh addresses as "Brother"—is to be transformed into a realized eschatology.

      Finally, of great consequence is Bahá'u'lláh's claim that all of the essentials of symbolical scriptural exegesis are epitomized in The Book of Certitude: "In fact, all the Scriptures and the mysteries thereof are condensed into this brief account (va fi'l-haqiqa jami-i kutub va Asrár-i án dar in mukhtasar dhikr shudih). So much so, that were a person to ponder it a while in his heart, he would discover from all that hath been said the mysteries of the Words of God, and would apprehend the meaning of whatever hath been manifested by that ideal King."59 The veracity or falsity of this claim is purely a faith issue. The very claim itself entails an assertion of authority quite rare in Islam, even among mystics. As we shall see in the next chapter, this is a further instance of "interpretation as revelation," which began with Bahá'u'lláh's precursor and herald, the Báb.60

      Talvíh (symbolic language, allusion): Talvíh (pl., talvihát) conveys the idea of "veiled" rather than "hidden." One lexical entry for talvih is "beckoning, waving, flourishing, brandishing; sign, signal, wink, wave; allusion; hint, intimation, insinuation; metonymy; pl. hints, references; remarks, annotations, marginal notes."61

      Shoghi Effendi did not render the same term identically each time in translation.62 Talvihat in the following passage is translated as "allusions": "Conceive accordingly the distinction, variation, and unity characteristic of the various Manifestations of holiness (ittihád-i magtihir-i qudsi-ra), that thou mayest comprehend the allusions (talvihát-i kalimdt-i an) made by the Creator63 of all names and attributes to the mysteries of distinction and unity."64 The more frequent rendering seems to be that of "symbolic language." For example:- "This is the purpose underlying the symbolic words of the Manifestations of God (talvtát-i kalimát-i ma-zahir-i ilahi)."65 Further in the

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same passage, talvihát, without modifiers, is rendered "symbolic language."66

      This rendering is also used of talvih in the singular: "Even as he [Jafar al-Sadiq] hath said in another passage: 'A true believer is likened unto the philosopher's stone.'Addressing subsequently his listener, he saith: 'Hast thou ever seen the philosopher's stone?' Reflect, how this symbolic language (án talwih), more eloquent (ablagh) than any speech, however direct (tasrih), testifieth to the non-existence of a true believer."67 The talvih (referring to the rhetorical question) is hardly recondite at all in this passage, as it follows an explicit simile (comparison of believer and philosopher's stone). The usage here is therefore more on the order of an implication. Indeed, Shoghi Effendi alternatively renders talvlh "implication."68

      Ishára (allusion): According to Nwyia, ishára has both concrete and and abstract definitions. Physically, ishára denotes "gesture," "sign," "indication." Conceptually, ishdra means "allusion" or "allusive language."69 In rhetoric, Qudama ibn Ja'far (d. 948 C.E.) defined ishdra in terms of its compactness of expression and its capacity to express "many meanings" (ma'áni kathira).70 This term gained currency among Sufis, for whom ishdra signified "the esoteric language of the inexpressible mystical experience."71

      Probably the most significant and recurrent metaphor for allusions in The Book of Certitude is "veils." Bahá'u'lláh cites one of five "answers" in the hadíth of Kumayl, which defines Truth as: "Unfolding the veils of glory without allusion" (kashf-i subuát al-jaldl min ghayr-i ishárat)."72 In this tradition, "veils of glory" are obviously associated with " allusions." These terms appear together elsewhere in The Book of Certitude in this apposition: "Then will thine eyes no longer be obscured by these veils, these terms, and allusions (hujubat73 va ishárát va kalimát)."74

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      At times isharat is translated as "implications" when talvihat is rendered alongside it as "allusions." To wit: "This servant will now share with thee a dewdrop out of the fathomless ocean of the truths treasured in these holy words, that haply discerning hearts may comprehend all the allusions (talvihát) and the implications (ishárát) of the utterances of the Manifestations of Holiness."75 It would seem that, in Bahá'u'lláh's usage of the term, what an ishára hints at is already known, but is not readily understood. Thus, an ishára is more on the order of an indirect reference rather than something completely hidden.

      In the hierarchy of interpretation, generally speaking, ramz and sirr are opague, while talwih and ishára are oblique. All are abstruse. This is somewhat of an overgeneralization, however, based on patterns of usage and associated imagery. Despite these observable associations of metaphor and meaning, Bahá'u'lláh himself seems to press little distinction among these terms. Three of these four terms in fact appear together in the following passage:
Thus at the hour when Muhammad, that divine Beauty, purposed to unveil one of the mysteries hidden in the symbolic terms (ramzi az Asrár) "resurrection," "judgement," "paradise," and "hell," Gabriel, the Voice of Inspiration, was heard saying: "Erelong will they wag their heads at Thee, and say:'When shall this be?' Say: 'Perchance it is nigh.'"76 [Qur'án 17:5 11 The implications (talwih) of this verse alone suffice the peoples of the world, were they to ponder it in their hearts.

      After all is said and done, these terms serve their hermeneutical purpose: the production of meaning to educe new truth, particularly in legitimating a new revelation beyond the Qur'án. On a continum of meaning, these hermeneutical terms range from a hint to a secret, from a veil to a barrier, from a riddle to an enigma, from allusion to symbol. These technical terms present a referential field that

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stretches from simple figuration to unmarked symbolism.

      Now that Bahá'u'lláh's hermeneutical termininology has been discussed, we will turn to equally technical questions as they pertain to his cumulative argument. Which exegetical procedures or traditional interpretive devices does he employ? How does Bahá'u'lláh's exegesis lay the foundation for revelation beyond Islam? In what way does Bahá'u'lláh extend the "nabi-imám Syzygy"?77 How are the figures of the Báb and the Bábí messiah, "Him Whom God Shall Make Manifest" (man yuzhiruhu'Alláh) legitimated in Islamic termS?78 These are questions that will be explored in the next chapter.

NOTES

1. Bahá'u'lláh, The Essence of Mysteries (Jawáhir al-Asrár). Translation authorized by the Universal House of Justice, 28 July 1993. Arabic transliteration and brackets added.
2. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, p. 313. Upon making this observation, the great Islamic chronicler cites a prophetic hadíth: "If scholarship hung suspended in the highest part of heaven, the Persians would (reach and) take it." J. D. McAuliffe, Quranic Christians: An Analysis of Classical and Modern Exegesis (Cambridge, 1991) p. 63, n. 129.
      According to Kinberg, Islamic empire-building was reared on the Persian model. Although Persians were, in effect, second class citizens, they were vital to Islamic civilization. Persians did practically everything except become Caliphs. Persians dominated works of translation in Islam, and so were important in the transmission of culture. This enormous contribution to Islam did not go unnoticed by the Persians themselves. They developed a Persian literary movement known as the Shuubiyya. Persians in this movement maintained that without them, the Islamic empire would collapse. One finds a curious piece of Persian literary polemic emanating from the Shu'úbis: "When God is pleased, he speaks in Persian, but when he is angry, He speaks in Arabic." (L. Kinberg, course lecture in Sufism, University of Calgary, 19 January 1990.)

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Cf. H. Balyuzi, Muhammad and the Course of Islam, p. 289, who, after discussing the Shubiyya, judiciously remarks: "The civilization of Islam was neither Arab, nor Persian, nor Syriae. It had all those elements within its fold: Egypto-Coptic, Indian, Greek, Spaniard, Berber, and Turkish. Jews, Christians, Muslims, Mazdeans, Sabeans, even Pagans, were equally proud to bear its burden and rear its structure."
3. V. Rafati, The Development of ShaykW Thought in Shí'í Islam (Ph.D. dissertation, UCLA, 1979) p. 17.
4. On this pari of exegetical terms, see J. Stetkevych, "Arabic Heremeneutical Terminology: Paradox and the Production of Meaning," Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Vol. 48 (1989) pp. 81-96.
5. J. MeAuliffe, Quranic Christians, p. 18, n. 15.
6. Poonawala, p. 209.
7. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 17/Persian, p. 14; and p. 213/Persian, p. 166.
8. Cryptically, Bahá'u'lláh speaks of the Manifestation of God as "the Revealer of both the Seal (mujid-i khatm) and the Beginning" (The Book of Certitude, p. 170/Persian, p. 132). If this is to be interpreted as a circumlocution, it would intimate Bahá'u'lláh's sense of authority for radically reinterpreting the quranic appellative, "Seal of the Prophets." The term mujid, derived from wajada, lexically means "originator, author, creator." Bahá'u'lláh's authority claims are discussed in the final chapter of this book.
9. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 43/Persian, p. 33.
10. See texts cited by Shoghi Effendi, The Promised Day is Come, pp. 110-11.
11. Cf. Jullandri, "Quranic Exegesis and Classical Tafsír," p. 103.
12. J. Taylor, "Man's Knowledge of God in the Thought of JaTar al-Sadiq," Islamic Culture, Vol. 40 (1966) p. 200.
13. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Assurance (Khan's translation), p. 1/Persian text, p. 2. In its masucline form, muta'alliq means 4'pertaining to." (Wehr/Cowan, Arabic-English Dictionary, p. 635) gunun-at simply means "doubts, opinions, surmises." (Steinglass, Persian-English Dictionary, p. 827)
14. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 16/Persian, p. 13.
15. Ishraq-Khavari, "subuhat-i jalal," in Qamus-i-Íqán, Vol. 2, pp. 858-59.

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16. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 164.
17. Ibid., p. 86/Persian, p. 67.
18. Averroes, The Decisive Treatise (Kitáb fasl al-máqál), Chapter 3. Tr. G. Hourani, Averroes On the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy, p. 65.
19. S. Nasr, Ideals and Realities of Islam, p. 59. Cf. M. Ayoub, The Qur'án and Its Interpreters, Vol. 1, p. 24.
20. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 210/Persian, p. 163.
21. Ibid., p. 72/Persian, p. 55.
22. See, Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, Persian, p. 127 and passim throughout the entire Persian text, sometimes with the explanatory formula yani ("meaning," "that is to say," "to wit," "namely"). Ibid., p. 25.
23. Ibid., p. 204
24. Ibid., p. 205
25. Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal, p. 199.
26. The Báb, The Seven Proofs (Dala'il-i saba), in Selections form the Writings of the Báb (tr. H. Taherzadeh.), p. 119. Cf. Amanat's translation of this passage in Resurrection and Renewal, P. 199.
27. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 202.S. The importance of this circumscription was pointed out by S. Scholl, Imami Shí'ísm ' and the Bahá'í Faith: A Preliminary Study (Honors Thesis; University of Oregon, 1980) p. 68.
28. Even so, Bahá'u'lláh was critical of the hadíth material: "Moreover, the traditions themselves grievously differ, and their obscurities are manifold." (The Book of Certitude, p. 201.)
29. In The Book of Certitude, it is interesting to note, one does not encounter the typical apocalyptic traditions known as malahim, which deal mostly with bloody battles supposed to take place at the end of the age.
30. M. Ayoub, "The Speaking Qur'án and the Silent Qur'án: A Study of the Principles and Development of Imami Shí'í tafsír," in Rippin (ed.), Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Qur'án, p. 187. Ayoub was citing the twentieth-century Iranian theologian Tabataba'i.
31. Ibid., p. 188.
32. M. Hogsdon, "Batiniyya," in Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd ed.), p.1098.

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33. Ibid., p. 1099.
34. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, pp. 254-55/Persian, pp. 197-98.
35. See W. Haddad, q.v. "Taftazani," in Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 14, p. 244, and C. Storey, "al-Taftazani," Encyclopedia of Islam (1st ed.). Al-Taftazani states: "The Batiniya are heretics because they claim that the verses should not be taken in their obvious meanings and that they have hidden meanings known only to the teachers. The object of their claim is to reject the Shari'a altogether. But the Sufl attitude is that the verses, apart from having obvious spiritual meanings, in addition have deep meanings discernible only by those who are inspired. A harmony between the normal understanding of the verses and the hidden meaning is possible. This kind of understanding is the result of perfect faith and pure inspiration." (Tr. Jullandri, "Qur'ánic Exegesis and Classical Tafsír," p. 106.)
36. In The Niche for Lights (Mishkat al-anwar), al-Ghazali writes: "Pray do not assume from this specimen of symbolism and its method that you have any licence from me to ignore the outward and visible form, or to believe that it has been annulled ... The annulment of the outward and visible sign is the tenet of the Spiritualists (batiniya), who looked, utterly one-sidedly, at one world, the Unseen, and were grossly ignorant of the balance that exists between it and the Seen ... In other words, whoever abstracts and isolates the outward from the whole is a Materialist (hashawiya), and whoever abstracts the inward is a Spiritualist, while he who joins the two together is catholic, perfect." (Tr. W. Gairdner, Four Sufl Classics [London: Octagon, 19801 pp. 138-39. Cf. Jullandri, "Qur'ánic Exegesis and Classical Tafsír," p. 112.)
37. Bahá'u'lláh, Tafsír-i suray-i va al-Shams (Persian title by which it is commonly known, though the work is Arabic), in idem, Majmu'ay-i ma?buay-i alvah-i mubarakay-i Hadrat-i Bahá'u'lláh: Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh (Wilmette, Ill.: Bahá'í Publishing Trust, 1978) p. 11. J. Cole, "Bahá'u'lláh's Commentary on the Surah of the Sun: Introduction and Translation," Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, Vol. 3 no 3-4 (April 1990) P. 18.
38. Bahá'u'lláh's explicit references to rhetoric are rare. He develops an interesting argument from it in a "Tablet" known as

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the Lawh-i Qina' (Tablet of the Veil), in idem, Majmu ay-i matbuayi alvah-i mubarakay-i Hadrat-i Bahá'u'lláh, pp. 67-68. Bahá'u'lláh refers to the following technical terms in rhetoric: al-maani wa'l Bayán, balagha, majaz, haqiqa, tashbih, istiara. I owe this reference to N. Kinberg.
39. On Qur'án 3:7 in Shí'í exegesis concerning the authority to interpret, cf. M. Ayoub, "The Speaking Qur'án and the Silent Qur'án," 186-87.
40. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, pp. 254-55/Persian, pp. 197-98.
41. J. D. McAuliffe, "Quranic Hermeneutics: The Views of alTabari and Ibn Kathir," in Rippin (ed.), Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Quran, pp. 49-50.
42. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 117/Persian, p. 89.
43. Ibid., 28/Persian, p. 22.
44. In colloquial Arabic, ishara means "hint" as in the aphorism: "A hint sufficeth for the intelligent" (al-'aqil yakfihi alishara). (Cited in Algar, Mírzá Malkum Khan, p. 223.)
45. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 49/Persian, p. 38.
46. Wehr/Cowan, Arabic-English Dictionary, p. 359.
47. Abu Deeb, Al-Jurjani's Theory of Poetic Imagery, p. 163, n. 101.
48. W. Heinrichs, The Hand of the Northwind, p. 37.
49. D. al-Jindi, Al-Ramziyya fi al-'adab al-''Arabi (Cairo, 1972).
50. In one passage, Shoghi Effendi renders bi ramz as "devoid of allusions." Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, pp. 254-55/Persuan, p. 197.
51. S. Lambden, "The Seven Valleys of Bahá'u'lláh: A Provisional Translation with Occasional Notes. Part l," Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, Vol. 6, no. 2-3 (February 1992) p. 43.
52. Ibid. Cf. R. Harris (tr.), "Sufl Terminology in Ibn 'Arabi's Istilahat al-Súfiyyah," Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn 'Arabi Society, Vol. 3 (1984), pp. 27-54.
53. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, pp. 59-60/Persian, p. 46.
54. Ibid., p. 210/Persian, p. 162.
55. Ibid., p. 205/Persian, p. 158.
56. Ibid., pp. 202-203/Persian, p. 156.
57. Ibid., p. 70/Persian, p. 54.

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58. Ibid., p. 43/Persian, p. 33.
59. Ibid., p. 237/Persian, p. 184.
60. See B. Todd Lawson, "Interpretation as Revelation: The Qur'án Commentary of Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad Shirazi, the Báb (1819-1850)," in A. Rippin, Approaches to the History of the Interpretation of the Qur1án, pp. 223-253; reprinted in Journal of Bahá'í Studies, Vol. 2, no. 4 (1990) pp. 17-43.
61. Wehr/Cowan, Arabic-English Dictionary, p. 882.
62. In one place, it would appear that Shoghi Effendi has translated the expression dar talvih adverbially as "solemnly" rather than "allusively" or "indirectly": "Behold how He hath solemnly warned (kih chigunih dar talvih indhar farmudih) them that have repudiated the verses of God. . ." (Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 215/Persian, p. 167).
63. Not capitalized in text.
64. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 21/Persian, p. 17.
65. Ibid., p. 41/Persian, p. 31.
66. Ibid., p. 41/Persian, p. 32.
67. Ibid., p. 79/Persian, p. 61.
68. E.g., "The implication of this utterance is ... (talvih-i Bayán in-ast)." (Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 110/Persian, p. 83.)
69. P. Nwyia, "Ishara," in Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd ed.), pp.113-114.
70. Abu Deeb, Al-Jurjanis Theory of Poetic Imagery, p. 164.
71. Ibid., p. 114.
72. This tradition is Persianized, not cited in Arabic. (Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Assurance [Khan's translation], p. 117/Persian text, p. 128.)
73. Compound plural.
74. Bahá'u'lláh, The Book of Certitude, p. 163/Persian, p. 127.
75. Ibid., p. 28/Persian, p. 22.
76. At this juncture, Bahá'u'lláh renders the Arabic verse into Persian. Shoghi Effendi chose not to translate this paraphrase as it would be redundant. Even so, this Persian "targum" is interesting reading.
77. A useful term employed by S. Scholl, Imami Shí'ísm and the Bahá'í Faith, p. 62.
78. A final note on terminology: I. Golziher notes the relatively

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late appearance of this term in Islamic literature, in the Lata'if al-minan (Cairo, 1321 A.H.) of 'Abdull-Wahhab al-Sha'rani (d. 1565 C.E.), who writes: "The interval (al-fatra) existeth for a brief period of time after every summoner (dai) unto God; until there is manifested Man Yuzhiruhu Alláh after him." Tr. by B. Walker and S. Lambden, "A Note by Ignaz Goldziher (1850-1921) on the Relationship between the Báb and Sufism," Bahá'í Studies Bulletin, Vol. 6, no. 2-3 (February 1992) p. 68.
79.       On the concept of renewal in Islam, see H. Lazarus-Yafeh., "Tajid al-Din: A Reconsideration of Its Meaning, Roots and Influences in Islam," in Studies in Islamic and Judaic Traditions, W. Brinner and S. Ricks, eds. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1986) pp. 99-108.

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