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BAHÁ'Í STUDIES REVIEW, Volume 9, 1999/2000 || CONTENTS BY VOLUME || CONTENTS BY AUTHOR || CONTENTS BY TITLE || REVIEWS BY TITLE || |
Jamál Effendi and the early spread
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Early developments in India In the 1850s, however, the Afnán family established a trading post at Bombay. The first to take up residence there were Hájí Sayyid Mírzá and Sayyid Muhammad, both sons of Hájí Mírzá Sayyid asan, Afnán-i-Kabír. They had become Bábís after meeting Bahá'u'lláh in Baghdad in the 1850s. Hájí Sayyid Mahmúd, a grandson of Hájí Sayyid Muhammad, also traded in Bombay. These individuals were very successful as general merchants and commission agents, trading under the company name of Messrs. Haji Sayed Mirza and Mirza Mahmood Co.[5] Later they were joined by Hájí Muhammad Ibráhím, who was known as Hájí Muballigh. The latter had received a religious education and even obtained a certificate of ijtihád from Áqá Mírzá Muhammad Taqí, one of the foremeost mujtahids of Yazd, but had preferred to engage in trade. He had become a Bábí in 1280/1863-4 and had been instrumental in converting many of the Afnán in Shiraz and Yazd (he was related to the Afnán family by marriage). His activities had, however, brought him to the attention of his erstwhile teacher Áqá Mírzá Muhammad Taqí, who issued a fatwá (judgement) of death against him. Consequently, it became necessary for Hájí Muballigh to flee and he took up residence as a merchant in Bombay in the late 1860s. It was as a result of the endeavours of another member of the Afnán family, Mírzá Ibrahím (a son of Hájí Abu'l-Qásim, the brother of the wife of the Báb), that the first Bahá'í printing and publishing company, the Násirí Press, was established in Bombay and began to publish Bahá'í books from about 1882-3 onwards. These Baha'is realised, however, that there was also potential for teaching the Bahá'í Faith. They therefore wrote to Bahá'u'lláh asking if a Bahá'í teacher could be sent to Bombay and offered to defray his expenses.
For this mission, Bahá'u'lláh chose Sulaymán Khan, later known as Jamál Effendi, an Iranian from a minor noble family of Tunukábun in Mazandaran, not far from Bahá'u'lláh's own ancestral home.[6] His father was named `Ísá Khan Tunukabuní. The year of Jamál Effendi's birth is not known but was probably in the second decade of the 19th century.[7] Many details about his early life remain obscure. Most of the information that we have is from 'Abdu'l-Bahá's account in Memorials of the Faithful and from Mírzá Kázim Samandar who met Jamál Effendi in Istanbul and spent some time with him there. ‘Abdu'l-Bahá indicates that Sulaymán Khan was brought up "cradled in wealth, bred to ease, reared in the comfortable ways of luxury."[8] In his youth, he was married to the daughter of his maternal uncle Hidáyat Khan.[9] We know he came to Tehran seeking some high position in court or in the government. 'Abdu'l-Bahá and Samandar both indicate that he encountered the Bábí movement and became a believer in Tehran, although the exact details of this are not known. This probably occurred sometime before the general proclamation of Bahá'u'lláh's claims in Iran in about 1868, since both Samandar[10] and Sayyid Mustafá Rúmí[11] state that he had been a Bábí before becoming a Bahá'í. When Bahá'u'lláh's claim was known, Jamál Effendi accepted it immediately. He became so enthused that he set out to meet Bahá'u'lláh in about 1288 (1871-2), travelling by way of Tabriz, leaving behind wife and children. Samandar implies that it was at this time that he changed from the garb and lifestyle of the Iranian nobility and took up the clothing and way of a Sufi darvish.[12] A minor flirtation with Sufism was not at all unusual among the sons of the Iranian nobility but with Sulaymán Khan it became his permanent way of life. After visiting Bahá'u'lláh in Akka, Sulaymán Khan began a period of wandering as a darvish mainly in the Ottoman domains. Samandar met him in Istanbul in 1291 (1874-5). Samandar reports that Jamál Effendi had tried to teach the Sufis in the Ottoman domains about the Bahá'í Faith but had had little success.[13] During this time, he had obtained a Turkish passport.' |
Jamál Effendi's first visit to India When the request of the Afnáns for a Bahá'í teacher in India reached Akka, Sulaymán Khan happened to have returned to Akka. Bahá'u'lláh chose him for the task, giving him the titles Lámi' (the shining or brilliant one) and Jamálu'd-Dín (beauty of the religion). Henceforth he was known either as Shaykh Jamálu'd-Dín or Sayyid Jamálu'd-Dín, or more simply as Jamál Effendí. The exact date of Jamál Effendi's arrival in Bombay is uncertain. Some authors, and in particular, Sayyid Mustafá Rúmí, who was converted by Jamál Effendi and was his close companion for many years, give the date as 1872-3.[14] But this would negate Samandar's assertion that he met Jamál Effendi in Istanbul in 1291 (February 1874–February 1875). Others, including Fadil Mazandarání, give the date 1295 (1878)[15] or 1296 (1879),[16] but this would negate Rúmí's assertion that Jamál Effendi attended the Durbar (proclaiming Queen Victoria as Empress of India) which was held on 1 January 1877 in Delhi.[17] If we assume that Samandar and the Durbar date are correct, this leaves only a narrow window of time between 1874 and 1876 for Jamál Effendi to have proceeded from Istanbul to Akka, been selected for the mission to India, travelled to Bombay, had the initial meetings that are described below and then gone on to Delhi. We may therefore tentatively date Jamál Effendi's arrival to around 1875.
Jamál Effendi arrived in Bombay with a relative, Mírzá Husayn, who was to act as his companion in his travels. He was welcomed to Bombay by the Afnáns and installed in the Shi`i Husayniyyih (building for commemorations of the martyrdom of the Imám Husayn). According to Rúmí's account, Jamál Effendi called upon Hasan `Alí Sháh, the first Aga Khan, the spiritual head of the Nizárí Ismá`ílí community, who are known in India as Khojas. Also according to Rúmí, Jamál Effendi spoke to Mír Sayyid Muhammad, the mullá and religious head of the Twelver Shi`i community, and converted him to the Bahá'í Faith. His activities, however, stirred up antagonisms and it was felt that he should leave after only a few months in Bombay. As Jamál Effendi travelled through India and other regions, it was his custom whenever heading towards a new region to write to the ruler or governor and the leading colonial administrator of that region and announce his intention to travel there. Upon arrival, he would call upon them and speak to them.[18] He proceeded in this manner as far as Rampur in the Rohilkhand division (later Bareilly division) of the United Provinces (later Uttar Pradesh), adjacent to the Himalayan foothills in north-west India. The chief of that state was Nawab Kalb `Alí Khan (1834-1887). He was a Sunni who had become chief of Rampur on the death of his father in 1865. He was regarded as a good administrator who greatly developed his state during his rule. He was, as were many educated Indian Muslim, proficient in Arabic and Persian. Jamál Effendi was presented at the court of Nawab Kalb `Alí Khan and stayed with the chief's uncle, Colonel Nawab Asghar `Alí Khan. He debated with the leading Sunni 'ulamá there on the subject of the non-existence of evil.[19] In Rampur and nearby Hassanpur, he succeeded in making many converts on this and subsequent trips. Jamál Effendi was in Delhi for the great Durbar which was held on 1 January 1877, at which Lord Lytton proclaimed Queen Victoria as Empress of India. Many rulers and dignitaries from all over India were gathered in Delhi for this occasion and Jamál Effendi took the opportunity to meet with them. For example, he met and formed good relations with Swami Dayananda Saraswati (1824-83), the founder of the Hindu reform movement Arya Samaj.[20] Next Jamál Effendi proceeded south to Hyderabad in the Deccan in south central India (SEE MAP 1). The ruler, Mír Mahbúb ‘Alí Khan the Nizam, was very young and the prime minister and regent was Sir Salar Jung Mukhtaru'l-Mulk (1829-83). The latter's real name was Mír Turáb ‘Alí Khan and he came from a notable family who had served as ministers to the Nizam of Hyderabad for generations. He was highly regarded as an administrator and statesmen. He was a Shi‘i and proficient in Arabic and Persian. Jamál Effendi spoke to this man and Rúmí reports that he was inwardly converted (and a tablet of Bahá'u'lláh was revealed for him), but he was compelled to remain outwardly a Muslim. Jamál Effendi also visited Bangalore and Colombo on the island of Sri Lanka at this time.[21] Fáil Mazandarání states that, at Colombo, Jamál Effendi met some opposition from Buddhist religious leaders. Mazandarání also states that Jamál Effendi's companion Mírzá usyan took ill, died and was buried there, but this seems unlikely in view of later events (see below).[22] Madras on the east coast of India was Jamál Effendi's next destination. It was here that Sayyid Mustafá Rúmí first met Jamál Effendi and was attracted to him. Rúmí was then a young man of twenty-five years. He was born on 24 December 1852 in Karbala to a Shi`i family of Iran who had migrated there (his father had acquired the name Rúmí when he arrived in India in about 1826 after a prolonged residence in Istanbul). His mother had died a few days after his birth and he had been brought up in Karbala by his maternal uncle. He had come to India in the company of his father and was now starting to set himself up in business in Madras, trading in cashmere woollen shawls. We have Rúmí's eye-witness statement that Jamál Effendi "attracted large gatherings" in Madras. It appears that at this point, Jamál Effendi had two travelling companions, in addition to his relative Mírzá Husayn. These were Hájí Ramadán of Rampur and Rafí'u'd-Dín Khan of Hassanpur, who had both presumably accompanied him from north India. The next episode is an indication of the trust and faith that Jamál Effendi was able to inspire in those he met. He was on the point of departing for Burma when a message arrived from the ruler of Rampur asking him to come to Rampur. The brother of the ruler, Nawab Mahmúd `Alí Khan, had fallen under the influence of a well-known atheist, Nazir Ahmed Hassan of Aligarh. The ruler was asking Jamál Effendi to come back to Rampur to deliver his brother from his disbelief. Jamál Effendi set off for Rampur accompanied by Hájí Ramadán, Rafí`u'd-Dín Khan, and Sayyid Mustafá, but sent Mírzá Husayn on to Burma with his baggage. On the way, however, Jamál Effendi went to Gulbarga, where friends from Hyderabad came to meet him, and Bombay, where he met with the Afnáns. As the party proceeded north, they were met at Cawnpore, south-west of Lucknow, by Nawab Mahmúd `Alí Khan who had been sent by his brother to receive Jamál Effendi. The latter remained in Rampur for one and a half months and succeeded in restoring Nawab Mahmúd `Alí Khan's faith, thereby incurring the enmity of Nazir Ahmed Hassan. On the journey back from Rampur, Jamál Effendi was accompanied by Sayyid Muafa Rúmí and a servant boy. They proceeded to Lucknow where Jamál Effendi called upon the Rajas of Amethi, Balarampur and Kashipur, as well as the British governor of the United Provinces. At Benares (Varnasi), he stayed with the Maharaja and met with Áqá Muhammad Taqí Banárisí, of Khurasan, Hájí Amad Bindání of Rangoon and some of the Iranian Muslims of Calcutta. Here he spoke at length about the fulfilment of the prophecies relating to the return of the Twelfth Shi`i Imam. At Patna, he was arrested as a result of the machinations of Nazir Ahmed Hassan, but proved his innocence and was able to meet with many of the prominent citizens of that city over Muslim month of Muarram, January 1878. In Calcutta, Jamál Effendi took up residence in a house in Kolutollah provided for him by an uncle of the ruler of Rampur, Nawab Safdar Ali Khan. Here he met with many prominent people including the Iranian merchants of that city. In the gatherings that took place at the house of one of the Iranian merchants, Hájí Mírzá 'Abdu'l-Karím Shírází, Jamál Effendi used the events that were occurring in the Russo-Turkish war as a way of bringing the discussion round to the question of the fulfilment of prophecy. At this time, Hájí Mírzá Muhammad `Alí Afnán (eldest son of Hájí Mírzá Sayyid Muhammad, the Báb's maternal uncle) and his assistant Áqá Mírzá 'Abdu'l-amíd arrived in Calcutta from Hongkong and came to visit Hájí Mírzá 'Abdu'l-Karím Shírází. Observing the great warmth between Jamál Effendi and these two merchants who were known as Bahá'ís, the Iranians guessed that Jamál Effendi was also a Bahá'í. It was at this time that Sayyid Mustafá Rúmí became a Bahá'í and received a tablet from Bahá'u'lláh. After a few months stay in Kolutollah, Jamál Effendi moved to Garden Reach, near Calcutta, at the invitation of Mír Ramadán `Alí Munshí as-Sulán Bahadur, private secretary to Wájid `Alí Shah, the former king of Oudh. Jamál Effendi had great hopes of converting the king who was reported to be a pious Shi`i Muslim. He found the king, however, to be immersed in luxury, merely following the form of his religion, and oblivious to things spiritual. Mír Ramadán `Alí, however, became a follower of Bahá'u'lláh. From Calcutta, Jamál Effendi left for Rangoon with Sayyid Mustafá Rúmí and Imtiyáz Husayn Khan (later known in Burma as Dr 'Abdu'l-Hakím; he was the son of 'Abdu'r-Rahím Khan, a Bahá'í of Rampur). Something of how well-known and established he had become in Calcutta can be judged by the fact that, as he sailed to Rangoon, he carried with him letters of introduction from several well-known people: Sayyid Amír `Alí (1849-1928), the prominent Shi`i jurist and writer who was later to become a Muslim leader and author of a very well known book: The Spirit of Islam (1891); Mr 'Abdu'l-Latíf, a presidency deputy magistrate; and Amír `Alí Khan (1810-79), the prime minister of the ex-king of Oudh. This departure ended Jamál Effendi's first period of time in India. Apart from the places already mentioned, Rúmí also lists Jaipur, Gwalior and Baroda as being places that Jamál Effendi visited in this period.[23] It would seem probable that he visited Baroda and Jaipur on his initial journey northwards from Bombay, while Gwalior could have been visited on the journey south from Delhi to Hyderabad after the Durbar. |
Burma Jamál Effendi left Calcutta in May 1878 and arrived in Rangoon seven days later. In Burma, Jamál Effendi met with perhaps his greatest success, in converting individuals who would go on to form the basis of the Bahá'í community of Burma. At this time, the British had occupied lower Burma, but King Mindon (reigned 1853-78) still ruled over upper Burma and it was the latter's reputation for justice and tolerance of all religions that had attracted Jamál Effendi. Prior to his arrival, he had written to a certain young Iranian merchant, Hájí Sayyid Mahdí Shírází, whose brother Hájí Sayyid Muhammad Shírází was a well-known Bahá'í merchant of Egypt, asking him to make arrangements for their accommodation. Upon arrival they immediately wrote to Hájí Sayyid Muhammad. The latter, according to Rúmí, replied, informing them that Mírzá Husayn, Jamál Effendi's relative and travelling companion, who had been sent on to Burma earlier, had died and Jamál Effendi needed to retrieve his belongings from police custody.[24] According to Fáil Mázandarání, however, Mírzá Husayn died in Sri Lanka (see above). Rúmí's account is likely to be the more accurate as he was an eye-witness of these events.
Thanks to the letters of introduction that Jamál Effendi had brought with him from Calcutta, he had no difficulty in seeing the British Chief Commissioner, Charles Aitchison (1832-90), the chief secretary, Mr J. E. Bridges, and the deputy commissioner, Major Evanson. Through these officials, he eventually managed to get authorisation to have his belongings (that had been with Mírzá Husayn) returned. On going to the police lock-up to retrieve his belongings, however, Jamál Effendi discovered that many valuable items, some of which he intended to present to the King of Burma, had been stolen. Jamál Effendi then undertook a prolonged court case lasting over a year against the Secretary of State for India for redress for the property that had been lost. The court case resulted in a double blow for Jamál Effendi. Not only was the case lost (the judge, Rúmí reports, ruled that as Jamál Effendi had described himself as a darvish and faqir in his passport, it would make no difference to him if his possessions were lost) but in the interval, King Mindon of Burma died on 1 October 1878. Assuming his correspondent was a merchant, Sayyid Mahdí had rented for Jamál Effendi a large house in the commercial district. Here, and later in another house in Mogul Street, Jamál Effendi received a constant stream of visitors. He talked to large numbers about the Bahá'í Faith and many became convinced Bahá'ís. Among these was Sayyid Mahdí himself, Áqá Muhammad Qásim Shírází, and members of the Kázirúní family (all Shi`is), Mawlaví 'Abdu's-Subhán Qurayshí (originally of Bijnaur in India) and a large number of his relatives and Qádir Khan Hakím (all Sunnís), Madurai Namassavaya Pillay (a Hindu, who took the name Jamálu'l-Haq), and `Alí Bhogah (a Khoja).[25] Many of these were among a large group of pilgrims from Rangoon to Akka in 1899 who took with them a marble sarcophagus which 'Abdu'l-Bahá used to hold the remains of the Báb. While still a new convert to the Bahá'í Faith, Sayyid Mahdí was rash enough on one occasion to make a public statement about the Bahá'í Faith during the Friday prayers in the Shi`i mosque and was fortunate to escape with his life. Following the instructions of Bahá'u'lláh, Jamál Effendi proceeded to Mandalay, the capital of upper Burma, in early 1879 and remained there for some eighteen months. Along with Rúmí, he took with him three of his new Rangoon converts, Dr 'Abdu'l-akím, Dr Khabíru'd-Dín and Fakir Muhammad, a servant. In Mandalay, Jamál Effendi was able to speak about the Bahá'í Faith to the Muslim population of that city. Although Jamál Effendi and his companions faced some hostility and were forced to move from their first lodgings near the mosque on account of this, they eventually found many who were willing to ally themselves with the new religion. A certain 'Abdu'l-Wáid (Burmese name Ko Thin) became enthused with the new message and introduced Jamál Effendi to his uncle 'Abdu's-Sattár (Burmese name U Koo), a silk merchant. The latter arranged for Jamál Effendi to take up residence in a house in the Koyandaw quarter belonging to him and built a special platform from which he could address the crowds that came. Jamál Effendi wrote during this time a number of pamphlets in Urdu regarding the prophecies of Islam and a 300-page book in Urdu entitled Mi'yár al-aqíqat (The Standard of Reality or Truth) for U Koo.[26] Even among the Iranian Shi`i community, thanks to the efforts of Áqá Muhammad Qasim Shírází who had come from Rangoon, there were some who listened to the message favourably. It was not possible, however, under the regime of the new king, Thibaw (the last king of Burma, reigned 1878-85), to proclaim the new religion publicly or to government officials. After his sojourn in Mandalay, Jamál Effendi returned to Rangoon and appears to have remained there for some six years, living first in Lewis Street, then in 39th Street, and taking up trade in ponies and hackney carriages in order to secure an income. A severe set-back in the financial affairs of the Afnán family that occurred at about this time may have caused his funds to dry up, forcing Jamál Effendi to seek to earn a living for himself. After about a year (i.e. in about 1881-2), Jamál Effendi undertook another trip to Mandalay, but an Iranian Shi`i who was hostile to the Bahá'í Faith caused a spurious case to be brought in the courts against him. It required a Bahá'í who was chief commissioner of customs (Mullá Ismá`íl) to intervene with the prime minister Kewun Mingyi before the case was dismissed. After this, it was judged best for Jamál Effendi to return to Rangoon. Over the next few years, Sayyid Mustafá made several journeys taking ponies and gems to Calcutta (in about 1882) and Penang (about 1883). In the latter town, he stayed with Towan Omar Khalidi, a Sufi shaykh. He tried to teach the Bahá'í Faith to those he met there, but had little success. In about 1884, Rúmí returned to Calcutta with ponies and precious stones for sale. On this occasion, he met Hájí Mírzá Abu'l-Qásim Náir Ifahání, a Bahá'í who was supposed to be preparing the way for a tour by Bahá'u'lláh's son, Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, to teach the Bahá'í Faith. He was surprised to find this man publicly saying that his object was to open Muslim centres of Freemasonry in India, under the auspices of the Freemasonry movement headquartered in Istanbul. It is recorded by Áqá Sayyid Ismá`íl, the son of Hájí Sayyid Mahdí Shírází, that the Bahá'ís of Burma used to ask Jamál Effendi to mention their names in the reports that he wrote back to Akka. These would be sent to the Afnáns in Bombay. They would send these on to their trading office in Egypt, from where pilgrims would take them to Akka where they would be delivered to Mírzá Áqá Ján, Khádimu'lláh.[27] |
Journey to south-east Asia (SEE MAP 2) The next journey that Jamál Effendi undertook was to south-east Asia in about 1884-5.[28] He and Sayyid Mustafá left their business affairs in the hands of some of the Bahá'ís and initially set off for India. In Calcutta, they found most of their old friends had moved away or died and so they pressed on to Dacca (now Dhaka, the capital of Bangladesh) where they met some "interesting and important people"[29]: including Khája 'Abdu'l-Ghaní, who is described as a descendent of the former chief of the province, and Mawlavi 'Ubaydu'lláh al-'Ubaydí, who was professor of Arabic at Dacca College.[30]
While they were in Dacca, an urgent telegram arrived from the Afnáns in Bombay summoning them there. They set off somewhat perplexed. Upon arrival, they hired a room near Batliwalla Hospital in Byculla and went forthwith to the Afnáns' office in Fort Bombay. Upon their arrival, Jamál Effendi was shown into a private room while Rúmí was left in the outer room for a couple of hours wondering what was going on. Eventually Jamál Effendi re-appeared and told Rúmí that Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, the son of Bahá'u'lláh, had arrived. Jamál Effendi instructed Rúmí that when Mírzá Muhammad `Alí emerged from the inner rooms, Rúmí should "bow reverently before him and fall prostrate at his holy feet."[31] When Mírzá Muhammad `Alí appeared, however, Rúmí only bowed before him to the extent that good manners dictated and did not prostrate himself. This caused great annoyance to Jamál Effendi, the Afnáns and others present. Mírzá Muhammad `Alí stayed a little while and then went out for a walk with Hájí Mírzá Abu'l-Qásim Náir. The group remaining talked among themselves of plans for Mírzá Muhammad `Alí's visit. Among these were plans for Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, who was a fine calligrapher, to prepare a number of collections of the writings of Bahá'u'lláh for publication. As they stood to leave, Hájí Sayyid Mírzá Afnán asked Rúmí why he had not prostrated himself at the feet of "Áqá" (the Master). Rúmí replied that according to the text of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, it was forbidden to adore or to fall prostrate before any individual,[32] that there was no question regarding the matter of who was our "Master" while Bahá'u'lláh was still alive, and we did not know who would be our "Master" after his passing. The Afnáns were very annoyed at Rúmí's answer and attacked Jamál Effendi when he tried to intervene to calm matters down. Eventually they told Jamál Effendi that he was not to bring Rúmí to their office again.[33] Mírzá Muhammad `Alí stayed about one year in India on this occasion but none of the teaching activities that had been expected of him materialised. Mírzá Muhammad `Alí returned to Bombay in about January 1890 and again stayed for just over a year, supervising the publication of a number of compilations of the writings of Bahá'u'lláh. A few years later, after the passing of Bahá'u'lláh, these Afnáns, Hájí Sayyid Mírzá and Sayyid Muhammad, sided with Muhammad `Alí against 'Abdu'l-Bahá and were declared covenant-breakers. Jamál Effendi and Rúmí stayed for three weeks in Bombay and then went to Madras where they found the Bahá'í community numbered some four hundred persons. Sayyid Mustafá was re-united with his father there, while Jamál Effendi lectured and met with numerous enquirers. Among those who were counted as Bahá'ís in Madras were Nawáb Fírúz Husayn Khan, Nawáb Mahmúd Miyán, Sayyid Kázim `Alí, the chief contractor for the building of Madras harbour, 'Uthmán Khan Subadar Major Bahadur, aide-de-camp to the governor of Madras's bodyguard, Sayyid Dáwúd, the leader of the Nawáb Walajah Mosque (Sunni) and Mullá Muhammad `Alí Rampúrí, a learned scholar of Arabic from the Bohra Ismá`ílí community, together with his nephew Murád `Alí, a merchant.[34] From Madras, Jamál Effendi and Sayyid Mustafá sailed to Singapore with two servants, one Shamsu'd-Dín, the son of Dr Khabíru'd-Din, and the other Lapudoodoo of Madras. On board they talked with a Portuguese general who was on his way to take up a post for his government in the Pacific. In Singapore, they were the guests of an Arab merchant Abú Bakr ibn 'Umar al-Junayd, who was the Turkish vice-consul (Jamál Effendi held a Turkish passport). Here Jamál Effendi was easily able to get permission to travel to Java on his Turkish passport, but Rúmí was asked to pay a large bond as surety. Of course, no-one in Singapore was willing to stand surety for a complete stranger. Rúmí eventually persuaded the British authorities to issue travelling documents on the basis of which the Dutch consul gave him and the two servants a permit to travel (the country that is now known as Indonesia was then the Dutch East Indies).[35] Jamál Effendi and his party sailed on to Djakarta (Batavia), the seat of the Dutch colonial authorities, where they were assigned to the Arab quarter, Pakhojan. The Dutch authorities were extremely nervous about any religious propaganda in their colonies. Rúmí reports that their travel permits therefore only allowed them to visit the coastal ports of the Dutch East Indies and that spies were set to watch their activities. The Turkish consul-general in Batavia, `Alí Ghalib Bey, however, gave them every assistance. Jamál Effendi did not know Malay, the language most widely spoken in this region; he spoke Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Urdu and Hindi. Fortunately, however, Rúmí was gifted with languages and soon picked up Malay to add to the long list of languages that he was able to read, write and speak: Arabic, Persian, Hindi, Tamil, Gujarati, Urdu, Burmese and English. Finding that they could not teach effectively in Batavia, Jamál Effendi and Rúmí travelled to Surabaya, further along the north Java coast, where they stayed for a couple of months. Here a certain Sayyid Akhíl ibn Háshim al-Habashí became a Bahá'í together with his family. They travelled along the coast, dropping anchor at the island of Bali, which Rúmí calls Bali Amfinan, and then on to Lombok, which Rúmí calls Bali Lomboc. Here they were eagerly anticipated by Sayyid 'Abdu'lláh, the chief collector of customs, for not only were they bringing with them his estranged son Muhammad Nat, but Rúmí was in a position to verify Sayyid 'Abdu'lláh's claim to descent from the eminent Sufi shaykh Sayyid 'Abdu'l-Qádir Gílání of Baghdad. Rúmí drew up the appropriate genealogical chart and Sayyid 'Abdu'lláh gave a great banquet to celebrate the occasion. Sayyid 'Abdu'lláh arranged for them to be received by the Buddhist king and his Muslim queen, with whom they spoke on religious matters. Jamál Effendi's next stop was Macassar (now Ujung Padang) on the Celebes Island (now Sulawesi), where he and Sayyid Mustafá narrowly escaped death at the hands of a treacherous host. The Celebes Island contained numerous small principalities which had come under Dutch suzerainty but retained their independence. The Dutch were anxious to retain control of the rich supply of spices and timber which this part of the world supplied against the incursion of other powers. As the Turkish consul in Batavia had asked them to visit an aged Turkish soldier on this island, they were able to persuade the Dutch governor, Mr Brooghmann, to allow them to go into the interior. They first sailed northwards along the coast in a small native boat to the port of Pari Pari. This was the capital of a small kingdom ruled by Fatta Arongmatua Aron Rafan. Here they were received by the king and his daughter, Fatta Sima Tana, who was married to Fatta Talloo Latta, the king of Sedendring. Jamál Effendi succeeded in curing the king of his psoriasis through the use for a month of a herb called cassia fistula, some other herbs that they collected in the jungle, and carbolic soap. Consequently, Jamál Effendi was able to teach the Bahá'í Faith openly here and the king became very favourably disposed to the new religion.[36] Jamál Effendi and Sayyid Mustafá then travelled on to the town of Sedendring, which is situated inland on a large lake, and beyond that to the province of Padalia and Fammana, where they found a warm welcome from the ruler King Fatta Chikourdi (or Fatta Padali Arong Fammana) and Queen Diammarala but little response to the Bahá'í message. They were planning to leave again when there was an outbreak of small-pox. The king called upon Jamál Effendi for assistance and the latter used scabs from children who were recovering together with breast milk from a woman to make a vaccine with which to inoculate the children. This reduced the death-rate to one percent.[37] The two Bahá'ís then travelled by canoe along a river until they reached Boonay (Bone, Boni), the province of the Bugis people with its capital at Watampone. The Bugis were a fiercely independent people who had rebelled against the Dutch several times, most recently in 1859. Here the king, who was a young and well-educated man, and the queen, who was descended from the royal house of Goa (the area around Macassar), welcomed them warmly and they had the opportunity to teach the Bahá'í Faith. The king asked them to prepare a handbook for the administration of the kingdom and Sayyid Mustafá reports that they wrote this in line with the Bahá'í teachings. The king and queen are reported to have accepted the Bahá'í teachings and to have been prepared to promulgate them "as soon as they were divinely confirmed."[38] Unfortunately, the two Bahá'ís were not able to prolong their stay as the Dutch governor at Macassar had given them a strict four month limit. They retraced their steps, but when they reached Padali, news came of the death of King Fatta Arongmatua of Pari Pari. Therefore Rúmí pressed on by pony to Pari Pari to attend the funeral while Jamál Effendi remained behind. Later Rúmí returned and the two men went on to Pari Pari. Their servant, Lapudoodoo, died at Sedendring on the way. At Pari Pari, Queen Fatta Sima Tana presented them with adoption papers for two native Bugis boys, Naír and Bashír, to be servants in the holy household in Akka.[39] At Macassar, the governor refused to allow the two Bugis boys to continue and said that the matter must be resolved in Batavia. So Jamál Effendi and Rúmí returned to Batavia, spending a week at Surabaya with Sayyid Akhíl on the way. In Batavia, `Alí Ghalib Bey, the Turkish consul-general, was absent on leave and the French consul-general was looking after the affairs of Turkish citizens. Through the latter, they managed to get an appointment with the Dutch viceroy of the East Indies and persuaded him to allow them to keep the adopted Bugis boys. While in Batavia on this occasion, they had much more success in teaching the Bahá'í Faith. Sayyid 'Uthmán ibn Háshim, who is described as a great sage, and Sayyid 'Abdu'-Rahím ibn 'Aqíl as well as several others became Bahá'ís.[40] Eventually, the two men left for Singapore. They had with them letters of introduction to the French consul-general in Thailand and the king of Thailand from the French consul-general in Batavia who knew both of these individuals. Jamál Effendi, therefore wanted to go on to Thailand. He remained in Singapore, while Rúmí returned to Rangoon, taking their servant boy Shamsu'd-Dín back to his father and purchasing there some precious stones, suitable to present to the king of Thailand. This trip took two weeks and on the day of his return to Singapore, the older of the two Bugis boys, Naír, disappeared. After painstaking investigations, it was discovered that he had been enticed by some Arabs and then abducted onto a boat that had sailed that day to Mauritius with labourers for the sugar plantations there. Jamál Effendi was very upset by this news. Jamál Effendi and Rúmí sailed on to Thailand, together with Bashír, the younger Bugis boy, and Mas'úd, a black servant boy. The French consul-general welcomed them and arranged for them to stay in a government guest house near the royal palace. Rúmí writes that they had arrived at a time when the mother of King Chulalongkorn (reigned 1868-1910) had just died. But it must have been another royal death that had just occurred, since Queen Debisinindra (Princess Rampoey), the mother of the king, had died in 1861. The king was in mourning and was seeing no visitors. After staying a month or so, the two men returned without having met the king but having spoken of the Bahá'í teachings to Iranian Shi`is who were settled there and to Sayyid `Alí Yamání and other prominent Muslims.[41] They returned to Singapore and then back to Rangoon. In another account, Rúmí also mentions that they taught the Bahá'í Faith in Malaya.[42] It may, however, be that he was counting Singapore as being part of Malaya. |
Journey to Akka Upon their return to Rangoon, Jamál Effendi and Rúmí found matters greatly altered. The political situation had changed drastically with the British annexation of upper Burma in November 1885 and the deposition of the king. Among the Bahá'ís, much had also changed. In view of the new political and economic conditions, Dr Khabíru'd-Dín had sold up the pony and hackney carriage business that had been the main economic support of the two men and had returned to working in the Rangoon General Hospital; Hakím Imtiyáz Husayn was without employment and homeless; while Mawlaví 'Abdu's-Subán Qurayshí, the first Burmese Sunni to become a Bahá'í had passed away. Furthermore, Sayyid Mahdí Shírází had been negligent in pursuing tenure of a plot of land in a prestigious location that the British authorities had agreed to hand over for a Bahá'í centre to be built. The government had now allocated it to a British missionary society for a church. They went to Mandalay for a few days to ascertain the situation there. Upon their return to Rangoon, some of the Bahá'ís there persuaded Jamál Effendi to agree to a plan to send Rúmí back to Mandalay to set up a business office to connect with the businesses of the Rangoon Bahá'ís such as Abu'l-Zafar Qurayshí.
After about four months of trading successfully in Mandalay, Rúmí was urgently summoned to Rangoon. Here it was announced to him that Jamál Effendi was going on a trip back to Akka and that prior to his departure, he had arranged for Rúmí to be married to the daughter of the late Mawlaví 'Abdu'l-Subán Qurayshí. In the account that he has written of these years, Rúmí clearly betrays his unhappiness at this unexpected turn of events. He hints that he was not altogether pleased with having this marriage foisted upon him, and especially so suddenly. He was also heart-broken that Jamál Effendi was planning to go off to Akka, to the presence of Bahá'u'lláh, without taking him. He realised, however, that if he refused, he would disgrace Jamál Effendi and run the risk of the powerful Qurayshí family turning against the Bahá'í Faith. Somewhat reluctantly he consented to the marriage, although even almost fifty years later his writing about those events still reveals his resentment.[43] The wedding took place in September 1886. Shortly afterwards, Jamál Effendi left for Akka. Rúmí states that he took a boat from Rangoon headed for Port Said via the Suez Canal, eventually arriving in Akka. He was accompanied by two recently-converted Iranians and the young Bugis boy, Bashír, who was to work in the household of Bahá'u'lláh.[44] |
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