uncorrected OCR

Pembroke Persian Papers Series Editor: Charles Melville 
Volume 1: History and Literature in Iran edited by Charles Melville ISBN 0 9516443 0 0 
Volume 2: Rituals in Babism and Baha'ism by Denis MacEoin ISBN 1 85043 654 1 
Volume 3: Studies in Persian Painting edited by Robert Hillenbrand ISBN 1 85043 659 2

RITUALS IN BABISM AND BAHA'ISM
Denis MacEoin

British Academic Press
An imprint of 1. B. Tauris & Co Ltd
London ‑ New York
Published in association with the
Centre of Middle Eastern Studies
University of Cambridge

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Published in 1994 by
British Academic Press
45 Bloomsbury Square
London WCIA 2HY
An imprint of I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd
In the United States of America and Canada distributed by St Martin's Press 175 Fifth Avenue New York NY 10010
Published in association with the Centre of Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge
Copyright 0c 1994 by the Centre of Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cambridge
All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof, must not be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher.
A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog card number: 93‑60106 A full CIP record is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN 1‑85043‑654‑1

HC 2 a

Typeset by Photoprint, Torquay, Devon
Printed and bound in Great Britain by
WBC Ltd, Bridgend, Mid Glamorgan

Contents

Acknowledgements	ix
Figures		xi
Foreword by Charles Melville	xiii
Preface		xv
I	IN‑1‑RODU(71'ION	I
	ISLAMIC RITUAL	4
2	BABI RITUAL OBSERVANCES	6
	EARLY BABI RITUAL	6
	LATER BABI RITUAL	9
		1 Prayer (salat)	11)
		2 Invocations, supererogatory prayers, and reading
			of scriptural texts	12
		3 Talismans	14
		4 Rings, engraved stones, and tattoos	21
		5 Fasting (sawin, siltain)	24
		6 Pilgrimage (hay and ziyara)	
	1‑4
		7 Ritual purity and impurity	27
		8 Rites of birth, death, and marriage	30
		9 Festivals	33
		10 Rites connected with him whom God shall manifest
			(man ‑ 111zhiruhn 71ah)	34
		11 Ritualism in scriptural texts	34
	BABI RITUAL PRACTICE	
	'A.5

vi	RITUALS IN BAHISM AND BAHA'ISM
3 BAHA'I RITUAL OBSERVANCES	
	37
		1 Salat and associated observances	38
			Salat	38
			Wudu'	39
			Qibla	40
			Sundry regulations	41
		2 Other salats, invocations, supererogatory prayers,
			reading of scriptural texts, and salutations	42
		3 Talismans and rings	48
		4 Fasting (sawm, siyam)	51
		5 Pilgrimage (hajj and ziyara)	52
		6 Ritual purity and impurity	60
		7 Rites of birth, death and marriage	60
		8 Festivals	63
		9 The Nineteen‑Day Feast	65
		10 The Mashriq al‑adhkar	66
		11 Dress	67
	BAHA'I RITUAL PRACTICE	68
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS	70
NOTES		71

APPENDICES
	I	Instructions by the Bab for the spiritual seeker	93
	11	Tables for the construction of the 19 hayakil	98
	III	Tablet of the Bab on the construction of a circular
			talisman (da'ira) of seven circles	101
	IV	Portion of a ziyaratnama for Mulla Muhammad'Ali
			Barfurushi Quddus, written_by the Bab	105
	V	The Babi calendar	107
	VI	An example of the Bab's invocatory style	109
	VII	The three Baha'i salats, translated by Shoghi Effendi	110
	VIII	Salat by Baha' Allah, to be recited in time of need	115
	IX	Prayer by Baha' Allah designed to be read every
			morning and evening	119
	X	Prayers to be said at table	120
	XI	The Arabic "Tablet of Ahmad", translated by
			Shoghi Effendi	121
XII Prayer of Baha' Allah to be said after disturbed
dreams	123
XIII Prayer of Baha' Allah requesting that God reveal
matters in sleep	124
CONTENTS	vii
	XIV	Two prayers for the purpose of being shown visions
			in sleep	125
	XV	Prayer by Baha' Allah to request a child	126
	XVI	The Arabic "Tablet of the Holy Mariner" (Lawh
			mallah al‑quds) translated by Shoghi Effendi	127
	XVII	Prayer by Baha' Allah	131
	XVIII	Litany by Baha' Allah	132
	XIX	The "Fire Tablet", Qad ihiaraqa Tmukhfisilln, by
			Baha' Allah	134
	XX	Six Baha'i talismanic prayers	138
	XXI	The Long Healing Prayer (Anta 7‑Kdfl)	141
XXII Lawh‑i ism‑i a'zam by 'Abd al‑Baha' on the
meaning of & "Greatest Name"	143
XXIII Some Baha'i and Shaykhi interpretations of "The
Mystery of Inversion"	145
XXIV Passage from Sara al‑hajj on the rites of the Shiraz
House, by Baha' Ailah	154
XXV Passage from the SCIra al‑haji on the rites of the
		Baghdad House, by BalIa' Allah	163
XXVI	The Lawh‑i naqus by Baha' Allah	169
BIBLIOGRAPHY		173
INDEXES		181
	Technical terms		181
	Books/texts		183
	People/groups/places		184
	General topics		187

Acknowledgements
I could not have asked for a more careful, accurate and helpful editor than Charles Melville; my warmest thanks to him for making it possible to turn such unpromising material into a publishable study. My thanks also to Steve Lambden for his continuing help with texts and ideas; to the Centre for Middle East and Islamic Studies at the University of Durham for its support; and to my wife, Beth, as always, for help in all my writing.

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Figures
I	The pattern for the construction of the first of the 19 hayakil	17
2	A square Shi'i talisman	20
3	A pentagram haykal	21
4	A Babi Mira, printed in gold and incorporating script in the
	Bab's own hand	22
5	A Babi da'ira received by E. G. Browne from Mirza
	Mustafa. of Isfahan in 1913	23

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Foreword
This monograph was advertized at the time of the publication of the first volume of Pembroke Papers, in 1990, and it is a relief as well as a pleasure to see it finally in print. Although Pembroke Papers was originally conceived as air occasional series appearing at ‑irycgular intervals", it was not intended to be quite so relaxed in its publishing schedule, and I would like to apologize both to the author of the present work and to the multitudes of expectant readers who have been eagerly awaiting its appearance. The delay is no one's fault more than mine, although new publishing arrangements, the complexity of the original typescript and numerous other commitments have all caused prolonged periods of inactivity and lack of progress.
The main text of this monograph has been kept as free of intimidating transliteration as possible, full macrons and diacritics being provided only on the first mention of a technical term or phrase, which thereafter is found simply in italics. All such terms are listed in file Index. For consistency. Persian text is transliterated as though it were Arabic, (lie language of tile bulk of this literature (thus Persian v is always w, etc.). Only book titics are fully transliterated throughout; by contrast, personal names are given without macrons and diacritics, excel,[ in the Index. Authors' names are fully transliterated only as an integral part of a bibliographical reference. No doubt this produces some oddities, which I hope will be viewed indulgently.
I am grateful to Denis MacEoin for submitting his work for publication, both because a series is onlv a series when a second xolunle is enN isagcd, and because of its peculiar appropriateness for tile Pembroke Papers. 'I lie importance of Pembroke's most dktingukhed pcr~i:llli~t, E. G. Browne, in tile field of Babi and Baha'i studies ccitain] ~ HCCLk T10 elaboration, and from the material presented here ‑ partly based oil manuscripts collected by Browne and now housed in the Unitcr~ilN Library ‑ it is not difficult to see why Browne's intcrc~t and cnlhmi~isnl were so aroused bv this tic" religion taking shape befoye hi~ %crN c)cs

xiv	RITUALS IN BABISM AND BAHA'ISM
My thanks also go to Iradj Bagherzade of I.B.Tauris, for his interest in the series and for rescuing it from its own efficiency; several more volumes are now being conceived and prepared and no doubt in future we shall be rather less occasional.
I am grateful to the BahA'i Publishing Trust for permission to reproduce the texts in Appendices VII, XI and XVI, and to Bahii'iVerlag for allowing the quotation of the opening verses of the Healing Prayer in Appendix XXI. Figures 1 and 2 are reproduced by kind permission from Studia Iranica, together with much of the text in the section on talismans; figures 3, 4 and 5 are reproduced by kind permission of the Syndics of Cambridge University Library. I would also like to thank Joanne Bennett‑Murray for her help in producing computer‑enhanced images of the cryptic devices of "the greatest name".
Finally, it is my most pleasurable duty to acknowledge the continuing support of the Friends of the Persian Language Society and the Friends of Persian at Cambridge, whose generosity has made the publication of this volume possible. These friends are friends indeed.

Cliarlcs Melville Pembroke College, Cambridge
March 1994
Preface

Some 14 years ago, when teaching at the University of Fez, I found myself without access to the excellent library facilities I had enjoyed up until then in Cambridge. Nevertheless, I did have my own library, which included a substantial number of volumes on Babism, Baha'ism and Shaykhism, as well as a reasonable collection of more general Shi'i, Sufi and other Islamic texts. Eager to continue with some sort of research, I decided to undertake a project that could proceed well with such limited resources. The result was a lengthy paper on what I termed ritual and semi‑ritual practices in Babism and Baha'ism.
When I learned a few years ago of Charles Melville's proposal to launch a series of monographs to be known as the Pembroke Papers, I thought again of my paper. It seemed the ideal series in which to publish it: after all, E. G. Browne, the greatest authority on the movements about which I had written, had studied and Luight at Pembroke, and I had carried out my doctoral studies a few yards down the road. Charles welcomed the piece, and there then began a complicated process of updating and extending it.
This is not a penetrating anthropological study of the Practices Of two little‑known religious groups. Babisin all but dicd out N~cll ()~Ct a century ago, whereas Baha'ism was recently described as the second most widely distributed religion after Christianity. Of Babi ritual practice ‑ if there ever was very much of it ‑ we know next to nothing. And modern Baha'is outside the Middle East are restricted in both their knowledge of prescribed ritual and their implementation of it. 'I his is a book mainly about prescriptive texts, and only secondarily concerned with pTaxis. But I think there may be some value in it for all that.
Interest in Baha'ism itself is growing rapidly as the religion continues to expand, particularly in the Third World. But as anyone who has studied the subject even briefly will know, Baha'ism as presented to Western and Third World audiences is a semi‑rationalist movement that does not much emphasize public or private ritual. An examination of

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xvi 	RITUALS IN BABISM AND BAHA'ISM
the relevant texts, however, shows that there is enormous potential within the faith for practices of this kind, while recent internal developments (notably the first publication of a translated edition of the central book of Baha'i law, the Kitab al‑aqdas) suggest that ritual activities are likely to become more widespread in the next few decades.
Again, observers are often confused by the superficial Westernization of Baha'ism and its uncompromising break from Islam. It is proper to treat of Baha'is today, not as members of a Muslim sect, but as adherents of an independent religious movement; not a world faith, certainly, but without doubt a religion in its own right. This is important, but the historian and the Islarnicist will want to understand better the Shi'i roots of the faith ‑ something that a study of religious practice will reveal more readily than, say, social theory or community life in India or the United States. And there is, of course, a particular interest in all this for the Islamicist: very few movements in history have moved as far from Islam as Babism and Baha'ism, making a study of their religio‑legal systems of considerable importance as a means of assessing the nature of Islamicity.
But I hope that the value of the book will not end with those few academics who may find the topic interesting or helpful to their wider studies. There are, I know, many adherents of the Baha'i religion who, though eager to know more of the ritual and legal dimensions of their faith, find themslves frustrated by their ignorance of Persian or Arabic and the dearth of translations from texts dealing with these matters. The recent publication of an English translation of the Kilijb al‑aqdas will undoubtedly have whetted their appetite for fuller information, and it is my hope that the present work may supply it.
RITUALS IN BABISM
AND BAHA'ISM

Chapter One
Introduction
Taken together, Babism and Baha'ismi represent a textual and historical tradition of considerable range and complexity, yet the rich materials they offer for scholarship have largely been ignored in the modern period. This is in many ways understandable. Despite its extraordinary success as a millenarian movement during the first phase of its existence (1844‑50) 2 Babism failed to preserve its initial nionictiturn and, in the end, collapsed as a viable religious and political force following its military defeat by the Qajar state. Although the minority sect of the Azalis' attempted to preserve the original laws and doctrines of the later Babi scriptures,' they remained few in numbers, relatively lacking in organizational coherence, and unable to put into practice many of the observances detailed in the texts. Restricted to the sphere of the vestigial Azali community in Iran, Babism remained little more than a religion in potentia, fossilized in the memory of historical events and little‑read texts.
The other sect to emerge out of Babism was that of the Baha'is,' whose leader, Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha' Allah,' set himself the task of so modif)ing the original Babi message as to transform it into the basis for a fresh religious movement centred on his own person and drawing its inspiration primarily from his writings. Deradicalizcd and dedicated to a politically quietist programme of social and ethical reform, the Baha'i version of Babism spread in Iran less spectacularly than the original movement, but with more lasting results. The Iranian l3aha'i community has always remained relatively small in terms of absolute numbers,' but it is generally reckoned to be the largest religious minority in the country, and has developed a way of life that, if riot wholly distinctive, nevertheless possesses features of real interest to the scholar. Unfortunately, conditions in Iran have never been favourable for the serious study of Baha'ism, and, with few exceptions, scholars have not attempted to enter into close communication with

2	RITUALS IN BABISM AND BAHA'ISM
Baha'is or to engage in prolonged research into the life of their community or the history and doctrines of the sect.
Outside Iran and the Islamic world in general, Baha'ism was able to be more aggressive in its methods of proselytization, and, from the 1890s, small communities of converts grew up in Europe and North America.' These formed the springboard for later missionary enterprises which, by the 1950s, had succeeded in establishing Baha'i nuclei in almost every country. Since then, the prosecution of systematic, well-managed plans has resulted in the marked expansion of the movement in several key areas, principally in the Third World, and there is good reason to believe that it will continue to attract adherents on a wide scale for some time to come. The successes of recent decades have led to some reawakening of scholarly interest in the subject, and several important historical and sociological studies, mostly the work of adherents, have been produced in the past few years. Nevertheless, the distancing of Baha'ism from its Islamic origins and the missionary zeal with which it has been presented in the West since the early years of this century have tended to weaken the interest of scholars or even to alienate them, with the result that almost no attention has been paid to early scriptural material or to the cultus of the sect as it has developed since the 1860s.
One of the most notable features of Baha'ism in its present form is the manner in which it has been consciously constructed as an "independent religion" modelled on the Islamic pattern. The development of Baha'ism as a "world faith;' owes most to the efforts of Shoghi Effcndi Rabbani (1897‑1957), the head of the movement from 1921, but it began with the formulation in the writings of Baha' Allah from the 1870s of a shart'a, a code of Baha'i religious law and practice, based on that of Islam.9 The institution of a prescriptive shari'a had already been attempted by the Bab in the last two years of his life, but the system envisaged by him to replace the Islamic code was largely unworkable and stood in need of radical modification. In keeping with his general outlook, characterized by quietism, tolerance, and moderation,'(' Husayn 'Ali provided his followers with a comprehensive but undemanding shari'a of his own.
	The Islamic shari'a, in both its Sunni and Shi'i forms, is the result of 
a
lengthy process of legal and theological thought and debate. The
sanctification of the legal system by reference to the authority of
Prophetic sa\inp (al ' iiidith) %\as. as Goldziher. Schacht and other‑, 
have
shown," a largely retrospective process, N\herebN the "living 
tradition"
of the community became embodied in a canon that grew up in its 
wake.
Islamic theory, of course, reverses the process, and holds that 
Quranic
injunction or Prophetic dictum or action invariably preceded the
INTRODUCTION	3
establishment of an agreed practice (sunna) and rendered it legally binding.
Both the Bab and Baha' Allah proceeded from this latter assumption and, in seeking to establish new religious dispensations abrogatory of Islam, felt it to be their primary responsibility to provide ready‑made shari'as ‑ or, at least, their core elements ‑ for the communities each brought into existence. The Babi and Baha'i law‑codes are, therefore, of considerable historical interest as the first conscious attempts to establish such a system on a prescriptive, "revealed" basis rather than through the gradual emergence of a communal consensus. Whereas early Muslim jurisprudents and theologians had, to some extent, been forced to grope in the dark after an acceptable system for a community still in a state of flux and self‑realization, the founders of the Babi and Baha'i shari'as had in their minds exact Pictures of what such a system should be like. Their codes were worked out in theory before any attempt was ever made to put them into practice, and handed to their communities as divinely revealed and perfect. This theoretical quality was much enhanced, first by the impossibility of putting either system into practice within the confines of the Islamic world, and secondly by the unclesirability of revealing much of their contents to Western converts for whom the very concept of a shari'a would be alien and, in its details, possibly forbidding. It is remarkable that the integral text of the central scriptural work, the Kitdb al‑aqdas, which contains the fundamentals of the shari'a, was not made available to adherents even in the original language until very recently.
Baha'i preoccupations with world‑wide proselytization and the formulation of a rational social ethic, combined with a relative lack of concern for the development of a coherent internal spiritual tradition, have led to a corresponding impoverishment of what might best be described as "the religious life". This absence of a highly visible cultus has, at least in the West, been promoted as a positive feature of Baha'ism, which is described as a religion "free from any form of ecclesiasticism" and which possesses "neither priesthood nor rituals".12 To the outside observer, this can take what seem to be rather bizarre forms of expression. A recent popular introduction to Baha'ism, for example, devotes only four very short paragraphs to the topics of prayer and fasting, while a chapter entitled "How the Baha'is live" is exclusively concerned with administrative matters, down to a description of the work of local Baha'i committees." Rational management methods rather than essentially religious values would appear to dominate the lives of members of the sect.
This, however, is a somewhat misleading view. Whatever the pTeoccupations of the contemporary Baha'i leadership, it is clear that the majority of Baha'k are deeply religious people, with a serious commit

4 	RITUALS IN BABISM AND BAHA'ISM
ment to spiritual and devotional values, and that Iranians, in particular, are often well aware of the richer dimensions of Baha'i religious observance. There is enormous potential for the development of both the private and the public cult, based on textual prescriptions, and, as the non‑Iranian Baha'i communities move into their second and third generations, we may expect to see increased attention within the religion to those ritual and semi‑ritual observances that have so far been largely neglected.
The present work attempts to provide a detailed outline of textually sanctioned Babi and Baha'i religious practices, ranging from acts of worship ('ibadat) through to rites of passage, festivals and sumptuary regulations. It is supplemented by a body of texts illustrating or expanding on the information provided in the commentary, which it is hoped will form the basis for further studies of this neglected aspect of the Babi and Baha'i movements.

ISLAMIC RITUAL
Of the major world religions, Islam is undoubtedly the most notable for its lack of elaborate ceremonial. Nevertheless, it is, perhaps, more intensely ritualized than many religions with a high ceremonial content." Most obvious is the ritual prayer or salat, ideally performed five times per day, either alone or in congre gation. The accompanying rituals of the call to prayer (adhan), ablutions (wuda'), and the Friday sermon (khutba) combine to make the salat a centrai formalizing feature in daily religious life. 'Me obligatory pilgrimage (~ajj) to Mecca is high in ritual content, incorporating numerous elements of pre‑Islamic practice, such as entry into a state of ritual purity (ihrdm), the sevenfold running between Safa and Marwa, the casting of stones at three heaps of rocks (jamrat) in the valley of Mina, and the sacrifice of sheep and goats on the tenth day of Dhu 'I‑Hijja. In the course of time, much ritual has been elaborated for events such as birth, the circumcision of male children (and, in some areas, females), marriage and burial. Pre‑Islamic custom is often preserved in these observances and in the ceremonies associated with the various religious holy days, with considerable regional variation. More generally, the nature of Islamic law and customary practice is such that daily life is, in traditional areas, hedged about with numerous quasi‑ritual actions derived from the sunna, the unalterable practice of the Prophet and his Companions. Formulae exist for greetings, expressions of condolence or congratulation, or the commencement and completion of actions; there are rituals associated with sexual intercourse, menstruation and childbirth. Prescriptions even exist for dress, daily ablutions, the toilet and the consumption of food and drink. Only Judaism possesses a comparable code of everyday ritual.
INTRODUCrION	5
Although Surmism in general is free from complex ceremonial, the Sufi orders Qanqat), notably in Turkey and North Africa, have tended to elaborate their own ritual practices, particularly in respect of communal gatherings for the praise of God (dhikr Alldh or simply dhikr) or the performance of music and singing (samd'). The highly elaborate and intensely rituali7ed gatherings of the Mevievi or "whirling" dervishes are, perhaps, the best examples of this tendency and certainly the most well‑known. In North Africa particularly, saintworship in the form of maraboutism has given rise to a multifaceted cult centred on living holy men, pilgrimages to shrine centres, and celebrations of saints' birthdays.'5
Similarly, Shi'i Islam, particularly in Iran, with its theophanic doctrines and cult of saints, has given rise to numerous ritual and semi‑ritual practices. Pilgrimages (ziydrdt) to the tombs of Imams or their descendants involve ritual circumambulation, the kissing of doors and grilles, the placing of petitions, the reading of "tablets of visitation" (ziyaralndina) and other Supererogatory prayers, and the lighting of candles. The ceremonies associated with the day of 'Ashura, the tenth day of Muharram, include ritual flagellation, religious processions, the performance of stylized mystery plays, and the formalized reading by specialized functionaries (rawda‑khwdn) of dirges on the sufferings of the Imams (rawda‑khwani). In daily life, the use of charms and amulets Qurz, pl. ahraz), clay tablets and rosaries from Karbala and other shrines, ami foodstuffs endowed with heavenly potency (baraka) through being laid at the tombs of saints continues the round of semiritual practice.' 6
Shi'ism, particularly in its sectarian forms, such as the Isma'iliyya, Hurufiyya, Nuqtawiyya, 'Alawiyya and others, displays a marked predilection for intricate doctrines based on various systems of letternumber relationship, as in the Jewish gematria. These doctrines, which find correspondence between the various elements of creation by tricans of numerological calculation, have had a wide popular expressi(;[) in the preparation of magic squares, talismans, prayers (especially for healing) and other semi‑ritual devices.
Popular Islam, both Sunni and Shi'i, is a mixture of folk custom, magic, astrology, numerology, and ecstatic ceremony expressed through the rituals of mystical brotherhoods, guilds, fraternities and sororities, as well as the activities of mendicants, fortune‑tellers, the sellers of charms, and traditional medical practitioners. This folk religion is generally sharply demarcated from the High Islam of the Vaind', but the two do meet from time to time at a series of intersections. Babism is one of the best examples."

Chapter Two
Babi Ritual Observances

EARLY BABI RITUAL
In its early phase (that is, from 1844 to about 1848), Babism was characterized by its insistence on the observance of Shi'i Islamic law and custom, to the extent that the movement may be defined at this period as an extreme example of Shi'i pietism. Thus, in the Qayyum al‑asma', the Bab writes that "God has made the laws of Muhammad and his saints [awlip', i.e. the Imams] binding in every book until the resurrection", I and in another early work, the Sahifa‑yi 'adflyya, he states that "since no change may be decreed for [the faith of God], this blessed law (shari'a) shall never be abrogated. Nay, what Muhammad declared lawful (~aldl) shall remain lawful to the day of resurrection, and what he has declared unlawful (~ardm) shall remain unlawful until the day of resurrection. "2
	Beyond this, however, the Bab introduced a number of ordinances
which extended and intensified the regulations of the Qur'an and the
sunna. In his early letters, he "put desirable matters (musiahabbat) in
the place of obligatory (wrifib6t) and undesirable matters (inakriihuf) in
the place of forbidden (mu/ ' iarramdt). [That is, matters which had
formerly been regarded as merely recommended were to be considered
as obligatory, while those which had been merely discouraged were now
to be held forbidden.] Thus, for example, he regarded it as obligatory to
have four tablets (muhr) of the soil (from the shrine) of the prince of
martyrs [i.e. the grave of the Imam Husayn at Karbala] on which to
place the hands, forehead, and nose during the prostration of ritual
prayer (namaz ‑ Persian for salat); he considered the pilgrimage of
'Ashura a duty; he laid down prayers (adi'a)ancl supererogatory observ
ances (la'qibat); he proclaimed the obligation of Friday prayer (which
the Shi'a regarded as suspended during the occultation of the Imam)
... and he fashioned amulets (hayakil), charms (ahraz), and talismans
(filismdt) such as are prepared among the people ... All his com‑
BABI RITUAL OBSERVANCES	7
panions acted with the utmost circumspection according to the principles (usul) and secondary observances (furu') of Islam." 3
The early Babis were as noted for the strictness of their observance of Islamic law as they were later notorious for their abandonment of it. Mu'in al‑SaltanaTabrizi quotessevcral individuals on the attitude of tile Babis of this period to the Islamic legal code. Manv, for example, performed a fast of three consecutive months during Rajah, Sha'ban and Ramadan. Similarly, they would not wear black clothes because the Imams had forbidden this colour as being that of the 'Abbasid dynasty, which had persecuted them. For this same reason, even the writing of books in black ink was prohibited (red and gold normally being used instead); the Bab himself wrote in red ink before the composition of the Persian Ba ‑ . 4
	One of the earliest works of the Bab is a collection of 14 prayers,
entitled the Du'a‑yi sahifa or al‑Sahffa al‑ntakhz(ina, 5 apparently
written shortly after the Qayyum al‑asmd'. The prayers in this work are
intended for the use of the Bab's followers on various specific da ' vs or
festivals, and may thus be regarded as the first major contribution to
ritual observance in Babism. There are pra~crs here for the main
Islamic festivals ‑ the 'Id al‑Ghadir, 'Id al‑Fitr, 'Id al‑Adlia, 'Id a]
Akbar, day of 'Arafa, and the night of 'Ashuri ‑ its well its for Friday
(two prayers), the day of "moistening" (8 Dhu 'I‑Hijja), following the
day on which pilgrims leave Mecca, each day of the months of Rajah,
Sha'ban and Ramadan (which, as we have noted, were kept as a
consecutive fast by the Babis), the night of 15 Sha'ban. the third part of
every night, the night of the 23 Ramadan, and a prayer to be said on the
completion of the Qur'an. None of these is particularly innovatory
except in that the texts were supplied by the Bab himself ‑ but there
are two prayers, one designed to be said on "the night of 'declaration' "
and 5 Jumada 1, the other for the'ld al‑Ghadir, for Fridays, and also on
5 Jumada 1. By thus providing prayers for the celebration of the day on
which he declared himself the vice‑regent of the Imam, the Bab
introduced a wholly new observance into the Islamic calendar. But it
was still the Islamic calendar, not the Babi.
Similar in many respects to the Sal.urfa al‑maklizima is the SahTfa (or Kitab) &nwl al‑sana,' which seems to have been written by the Bab in Bushire on his return from the hajj in 1845. It contains 14 chapters, interspersed with other pieces, basically dealing with the observances for various important dates throughout the Islamic year. The majority of the sections of this book deal with the acts and devotions to he performed during the momh% of Muharram, Sa(ar, Rabi' 1, Rabi' 11, Jumada 1, Jumada 11, and Dim THijja (with some months having more than one section), while one section is designed to be read on the day of 'Arafa (9 Dhu TIlijja), the day preceding, the day after, the day of

8 	RITUALS IN BABISM AND BAHA'ISM
Ghadir (17 Dhu 'I‑Hijja), every Friday, the day of Bid' (?), and 24 Jumada 11.
The Bab's views on certain aspects of Islamic ritual observance, principally on salat and purification, are to be found in two short works, the Risd1a furLi' al‑'adliyya' (written in 1846) and the Kildb al‑tahara (The Book of Purification).' In these works, he provides detailed instructions as to the number and types of salat, the rules for ablutions, the number and form of prostrations, and so forth, but adds little in the way of innovation. Further details on the injunctions provided in these works on ritual purification will be provided in the section on that topic in the next part of this study.
Considerably more innovatory are the contents of a somewhat earlier work, the Khasa'it‑i sab'a, written at some point during the Bab's haJ journey of 18~4‑5. Among the instructions given by the Bab to his followers in this work are the following:
1 To read the Ziyara al‑jarni'a al‑kabira (a "visitation tablet" for all the Imams) on Fridays, festivals, and holy nights, after the performance of ablutions and the purification of body and clothes with great care, in a spirit of sanctity.
2 To perform the prostration of salaton the grave of the Imam Husayn in such a way that the nose of the worshipper touches the grave.
3 To add the formula "I testify that 'Ali Muhammad [i.e. the Bab] is the servant of the remnant of God [i.e. the twelfth Imam]" to the call to prayer.
4 Each believer to hang round his neck, reaching to his chest, a talismanic device (haykao in the Bab's hand, containing various names of God and other mysterious symbols based on the divine names (for examples of these, see the section on talismans in the next section).
But, of all the Bab's early works, the most interesting in respect of ritual observance is the Sahffa bayna 'I‑hararnayn,' written between Mecca and Medina in the course of bis pilgrimage in 1844‑5. In this work, the Bab discusses the use of talismans,10 provides prayers to be said at sunset,11 after the noon and dawn prayers, 12 on the evening of Friday," and at the beginning of every month," and gives instructions for pilgrims to the shrine of Husayn. " Of particular interest is a lengthy passage in which the Bab sets out a strenuous daily routine for the seeker (salik), with directions as to prayer, supererogatory devotions (nawafil), fasting (which includes a fast of 10 days each month to the age of 30, of 15 days each month from 30 to 40, of three days from 40 to 50, and of Ramadan only from 50), the taking of gum mastic, water and milk, study (including that of fiqh ‑ jurisprudence), sleep, and prayers
BABI RITUAL OBSERVANCES	9
during the night. " A translation of this passage is provided in Appendix 1.

LATER BABI RITUAL
In 1949 the Bab proclaimed himself the Qa'im or re‑appearance of the
hidden Imam and instituted a period of "resurrection" (qi ' idina), in
which the laws and customs of Islam were abrogated by him and
increasingly dispensed with by his followers. In their place, he set out
detailed prescriptions for legal and ritual practice, principally in the
Persian and Arabic Baydns, his two major works of the later period,
and, to a lesser extent, in other works such as the flaykal at‑din. " The
regulations given in the Persian Bayan are generally of a highly original
and idiosyncratic character, and those concerning ritual and semi‑ritual
observance are often markedly different from their Islamic counter
parts; in many cases, there are no comparable observances in Islam at
all. Not a few of these regulations are of additional importance in that
they form the basis for later Baha'i observance. Perhaps the most
significant single feature of the Persian Baydn and the books related to it
is the attempt to bring into existence wholesale an entire system of law
and customary observance without a basis in tradition. In Islam, the
Qur'an itself contains a limited number of laws relating to marriage,
criminal offences, and so forth, but the later development of Islamic
legislation is based on other sources, including the recorded or supposed
utterances of the Prophet. Ritual observances, such as those connected
with the salat or the hajj, as well as customary practices relating to dress,
toilet, eating and so on, are largely based on the recorded practice
(sunna) of the Prophet and his Companions.
The early Babis, as we have seen, generally continued to observe Islamic law and practice, with the addition of a number of extra devotional exercises provided by the Bab. But when, in 1848, the Islamic shari'a was abrogated, the entire system of customary practice based on the sunna was regarded as abolished with it. In the absence of a Babi sunna, the Bab sought to supply the details of daily behaviour and ritual observance side by side with the legislation he provided on marriage, inheritance, taxation and suchlike, in an attempt to translate his followers from the fully elaborated system of 19th‑century Shi'ism into an almost equally elaborate Babi system. To this end, the Bayan contains prescriptive statements on all manner of topics relating to individual and social behaviour. Thus, we find regulations relating to bathing, depilation, and even the use of mirTors," to salutations," the use of chairs,'(' the giving of replies either orally or in writing," the provision of high doors for buildings," the number of dishes which may be laid out at mealtime S,23 marriage within the limits of social rank '21 how to cook eggs '25 and a great deal more of a similar nature. In some
10 	RITUALS IN BABISM AND BAHA'ISM
cases, as we shall see, these ordinances partake of a semi‑ritual nature and it is sometimes difficult to make a precise division between simple prescriptions for daily routine and those which involve formalized words or actions akin to ritual observance. Nevertheless, let us attempt to summarize the more important regulations concerning devotional and quasi‑devotional behaviour which contains a ritual element.
1 Prayer (Salat)
The Bab seems not to have laid down specific directions concerning the form of salat, 26 but he does provide regulations in general for its performance and one or two more minute injunctions. Whereas in Islam there is a total of five salats per day, as well as particular salats in the event of earthquakes and so forth, the Bab abrogated all salais except one of 19 rak'at (sing. rak'a ‑ the act of bending the body at the waist, with the hands above the knees, followed by two prostrations), to be performed between noon and sunset (min zawal i1a za V,,C10.27 The Haykal al‑din indicates that even this salat may not be obligatory if dhikr (ritual mention of God) be performed instead."
The words to be used in the course of salat are nowhere given by the Bab, but he does provide an idea of the general content of the prayer. In the first three rak'at, the worshipper is to declare the unity of the divine essence (tawhid‑i dhat), in the next four the unity of God's attributes (iawhid‑i sifai), in the next six the unity of His actions (tawhid‑i afill), and, in the final six, the unity of His worship (tawhid‑i 'ibadat) .29 In more general terms, it is stated that "the best loved salat is that which is performed in a spirit of joy and fragrance. It has not been and is not pleasing for it to be made unduly long: the more it is made simple and concentrated (muJarrad wa jawhartar ‑ sic), the more it is loved of God. "3' The presumption is that the individual is free to use whatever verses, invocations or mentions of God he wishes, within the framework of the 19 prostrations and the themes outlined for each set of them.
Communal prayer (.~aljt al‑jamd'a), the most important collective ritual in Islam (apart from the hajj), was abolished by the Bab, except in the case of the special prayer to be read at funerals. This prohibition of communal prayer also abolished the function of imam or prayer leader of the community. 31 Mosques, however, were to remain, for both private prayer and, as I shall mention later, Friday gatherings for the exposition of sermons. In particular, the Bab instructed his followers to erect "mosques of the living" (masiIjid al‑hayy), possibly at the tombs of the 18 "Letters of the Living" (his first followers)." In the Arabic Baydn, believers are directed to make a "noble place" in their homes a private mosque, in the original sense of masjid as a place of prostration. It is, however, preferable to resort to the public mosques. 33
HABI RITUAL OBSERVANCES	I I
For the performance of salat, men are to wear an 'aba, but never a jubba (except in cases of necessity) and, during the prayer, the tips of the fingers only should be allowed to protrude outside the folds of the 'aba.3' Women are to pray in their own clothing (i.e. they do not have to put on an 'aba), and it is permissible for them to reveal their hair or their bodies to their husbands while praying."The prostration (sajda) is to be performed on a box (?) of crystal containing pieces of the dust of "the first and the last" (presumably the first and last Letters of the Living ‑ Mulla Muhammad Husayn Bushru'i and Mulla Muhammad'Ali Barfurushi: see also the regulations for burial)." What seems to be meant here is that, just as Shi'i Muslims place a small cake of baked earth from Karbala or another shrine beneath the forehead when they prostrate themselves in the salat, Babis are to use a box or block of crystal consecrated by this dust."
The qibla or direction to face in prayer is he whom God shall manifest, the messianic figure of the Bayan.'8 Directions exist for the call to prayer (adhan), in a form very different from that in Islarn. I‑or the purposes of the adhan, tire day (of 24 hours) is to be divided into five sections, beginning at sunset. In each section, the adhan consists of the words "there is no god but God", followed by a phrase which changes from section to section, also to be repeated 19 times. Thus, in the first section it is "God is the All‑Rich", in the second, "God is the AllKnowing", in the third, "God is the All‑Wise", in the fourth, "God is the All‑Possessing", and, in the fifth, "God is the All‑Powerful". Those who are too far away to hear the mu'adhdhin (muezzin) are to pay someone 19 mithqd1s (a small weight redefined by the Bab) of white sugar each day to chant the adhan for them. If believers should be asleep, they are under no obligation but, if awake, they are to be somewhere where they can hear the voice of the muezzin, although they should not go out of their rooms to hear him. If the weather is cold or the muezzin finds it difficult to chant for long for any other reason, he is permitted to chant the following once only: "God has testified that there is no god but Him and that he whom God shall manifest is the truth from God. All are created by him at the command of God. And we are all believers in what God has revealed to him."" Wudii'or ritual ablution is to be performed before the salai, as in Islam, and its details may be found in section 7, below.
	If a believer should forget part of the prayer, he is not required to
repeat all of it, but may go over only that part which he missed.") On a
journey, it is permissible at the time of prayer to perform only one
sajda, during which one is to praise God, after which one is to sit in 
the
hay‑kal al‑tawl * IN posture (squatting back on the heels) and to praise
God 18 times (presumably by the use of the phrase "Praise be to

12

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God") .4 1 Alternatively, the Haykal al‑dn prescribes that, on a journey, the believer is to perform wudu'and then to repeat the words "Praise be 42
to God, Possessor of might" (subhán Alláh dh"I‑aydáyi). Pregnant or menstruating women are . exempted from salat; they are instead to perform wudu' and to praise God 95 times each day, using the formula "Praise be to God, the Possessor of appearance and beauty"; elsewhere, this formula is given with a slight . difference. 43 It is recommended that, after each salat, the worshipper should ask forgiveness from God on behalf of his parents.44

2 Invocations, supererogatory prayers and reading of scriptural texts
Apart from the salat, Babi practice resembles Islamic in the existence of various invocations and supererogatory prayers, some designed for repetition at specific times or places. Thus, for example, believers are to stand facing the sun as it rises on Friday and to recite the following verse: "Glory from God be upon your uprising, 0 dawning sun. Bear witness then, 0 sun, unto that to which God hath borne witness in Himself, that there is no god but He, the Mighty, the Beloved. ,45 The same injunction is given in the Haykal al‑dn, except that the verse to be used is different: "Bear witness (0 sun) that no god is there but He, the Protector, the Self‑subsisting."46 Similarly, during the day and night of Friday, they are to make mention of God, Muhammad and the Imams (mazáhir amrihi) as well as (or, possibly, alternatively) "him whom God shall manifest" (man yuzhiruhu '11áh)47 and his "Letters of the Living" (~urúf al‑hayy)48 202 times 49 and to call upon God with the phrase "0
	50
God!" (yá '11áh) to the, number of four letter ghayns (i.e. 4000 times).
The Arabic Bayán contains a similar regulation, whereby, on the night and day of Friday, the believer is to repeat the phrase: "Praise be to Thee, 0 my God. Bless the Essence of the Seven Letters [i.e. the Bab ‑ 'Ali Muhammad] and the Letters of Truth [i.e. the Letters of the Living] with glory and majesty. ,51
In the Haykal al‑dn, it is decreed that the believer is to mention the unity of God 19 times per day, probably by use of the phrase "there is no god but God"; those who fail to do so are to be fined 19 mithqals of diamond, but not if their failure is due to forgetfulness. Similarly, the Bab (nuq(at al‑Bayán) is to be mentioned 19 times a day, with a fine of 19 mithqals of gold for failure. Muhammad (in his new persona as the first of the Letters of the Living) is to be mentioned 5 times, then 14 times (19 in all) per day, while 'Ali, Fatima, Hasan, Husayn and the other Imams 52 are to be mentioned in their resurrected identities 5 times per day, with varying fines for failure. Finally, the four gates ("the gates of guidance" ‑ abwáb al‑hudá) are to be mentioned as having returned,

	53
again 19 times a day, with a fine for neglect. The Arabic Bayán
contains an injunction to perform a salat for the Bab; which would
appear, on the basis of the Haykal al‑dfn, to.consist of 95 (akbrs ‑ but
		54
it is not clear how often this was to be performed.
Elsewhere, the Bab makes it obligatory to perform ritual mention of God 95 times each day, using a different name of the Divinity for every day of the month. Thus, the believer is to recite the phrase Alláhu abhá on the first day of the month, Alláhu a'zarn on the second, and Alláhu aqdam on the nineteenth, the choice of the remaining names being left
	55
to the individual. In the Arabic Bayán, it is made obligatory to recite
the phrase "God is Most Great" (Allahu a'zam) ‑ this ritual being
known technically as ta';'?n ‑ 19 times per day .56 The Haykal al‑dn
prescribes the repetition 95 times per day of the phrase "God is Most
57
Manifest" (Alláhu azhar). In the Chahár sha'n, the believer is instructed to stand each month facing the moon and to recite the following verse: "The glory from God be upon you, 0 moon shining at all times, and before times, and after times" (fkiilli hTn wa qabla h'n wa ba'da h'n). It is preferable to recite this verse 142 times (to the number of the name al‑Qá iM).58 It is, at the same time, made clear in another passage that dhikr is to be performed silently, in the heart, in contrast to the Islamic (and, in particular, the Sufi) practice of repeating the divine names aloud; excessive performance of dhikr is not considered pleasing to God .59 Like salat, dhikr is to be performed wearing an 'aba.60
Apart from this daily dhikr, the Bab also prescribed for each believer the recitation each day of 700 verses of the Bayán (a verse being 30
61 letters, according to another passage), or, if he should be unable to do so, the mention of God 700 times, apparently by use of the invocation "0 God" (Alláhtimma).62 In a different chapter, there exists what appears to be a supplementary regulation to the foregoing, whereby each believer is required to read the verses of the Ba),áii and is not permitted to read less than 19 verses at a time. Those who are unable to do so are to recite 19 times at sunrise the following words: "God, God is ,,63
my Lord, and I aissociatte no one with God, my Lord. A differeiit verse is given in the Haykal al‑dfn, also to be repeated 19 times: "Praise be to God, the King, the Almigyhty."64
Other invocations are recommended in more general fashion. It is not considered proper to engage in any activity without first protiouticifig the following verse: "In truth, I stand up or sit down for the sake of God, Lord of the heavens and Lord of the earth, Lord of all things, Lord of the seen and unseen, Lord of all worlds" or, alternatively: "In truth, I do this for the sake of God, Lord of the heavens and Lord of the earth, Lord of the seen and the unseen, Lord of all worlds." Either of these verses may be recited aloud or in the heart.'5 Similarly, anyone who wishes for something is required to call on God by each of His

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		66
seven possible names (in each attribute), each name to be spoken 100
	67
times (to the number of the letter qáf).	Similarly, it is prescribed that,
should a believer wish to make use of anything, he should utter one of
the names of God, either outwardly or inwardly, or even by merely
turning his attention to the name.68 The Bayán is to be mentioned
(? quoted) on anything made by a believer.6)
The Islamic use of the ritual phrase bism Alláh al‑rahmán al‑rahm at the beginning of books, chapters and so forth was repiaced by th*e Bab by the phrase bism Alláh al‑amna' al‑aqdas. 70 The words "there is no god but God" are to be written at the beginning of books (presumably before the bism Allah), and "there is no Proof but 'Ali Muhammad"
71
('Al' qabla Muhammad) at the end. Similarly, the Islamic ritual greeting of al‑saiám 'alaykum (to which the reply is 'alaykum al‑salám) was replaced by a slightly more complex series of salutations. Thus, men are to greet one another with the phrase Allahu akbar (God is Most Great), the response to which is Allahu a'zam (God is Most Mighty), while women are to use the salutation Allahu abha (God is Most Splendid), to which the reply is Allahu ajmal (God is Most Beauteous).72 The Haykal al‑dn prescribes different forms for these salutations. Men are to greet one another with the phrase Allahu akbar and to reply with Allahu azhar (God is Most Manifest); women are to greet with Allahu ajmal and to reply with Allahu a'azz (God is Most
73
Glorious). These forms are, strictly speaking, not greetings at all but invocations of God, the first two being known in Islam as takbir and ta'zim respectively.
There does not appear to be any Babi equivalent of the Islamic pronunciation of the name of God over an animal being slaughtered, but while cleaning a fish, one is to repeat the words: "In the name of God, the Protector, the Self‑subsisting."74 Oaths (hilf) are to be sworn by God or by him whom God shall manifest and are to be regarded as binding. 75

3 Talismans
The Bab began his career with claims to universal and divinely inspired knowledge similar to those advanced by the Shaykhi leaders such as
76
al‑Ahsa'i, Kazim Rashti and Karim Khan Kirmani. When, in 1848, Shirazi proclaimed himself to be the hidden Imam in person, and went on to describe himself as empowered to abrogate the religious dispensation of Islam and usher in a new revelation, he saw himself as not so much in contact with divin‑e knowledge as its source. He was therefore able to reveal to inen not only material knowledge, but also gnosis
	17
located in the interworld of barzakh or húrqalyá.
In the broadest sense, the supernatural knowledge that the Bab claimed to make known in his writings differs little from most other

systenis of esoteric knowledge in Sulism or extrenie Shi'ism, in that it purports to reveal the inner meaning (bátin) and structure of exoteric reality and, in particular, the true significance of expressions of that reality in conventional scriptural terminology. The Bab is especially concerned to uiicover the meatiiing beiiind escliaitological coticepts such ats resurreetioti, the graive, the questioning of the deaid, dcaitli itself (atid life), the hour, the bridge, the book and so forth, which he reinterprets in an original allegorical manner within the framework of an elaborate metaphysical system. The Bab's view of the world is rooted in a subtle vision of existence as structured aecording to a series of correspondences between names and the realities that underlie them, in patterns familiar to us from Hurufi, Bektashi, and related speculations.
	This system of correspondences is linked in a unique way to ttie Bab's
theory of knowledge in general, much as the idea of kaslif is central to
Ibn al‑'Arabi's ontol ogy.78 A knowledge of the realities lying behind
words and letters is not merely part of a more comprehensive know
ledge, but serves as ttie key to such ai knowledge aitid forms the most
distinctive feature of the Bab's revelation of hidden truth. In one of the
last sections of the Kitáb‑i panj sha'n or Slzii'ún‑i kliat?z.sa, 79 an
extremely late major work of the Bab's written between 19 March and
5 April 1850, God is credited with tlle following statenient: "I liaive
created the letters and made them the keys of every science (t?iafáit'i ' i
kulli	lie then goes on to address all things, saying "consider
everything from the Most e‑alt‑d heights to the lowliest atom: you shall
behold it all in the 28 letter.,, j.st as you have beheld all the letters in it;
and you shall behold all the spirits of the letters in their spirits" .80 Some
lines later, he continues:"I created an essence of hidden 81 and concealed
knowledge, and I stored it up behind the veils of the uiiseen fT0rn the
beginning that has no begitiniiig until now. ,82
This knowledge or science is, of course, gematria and, in particular, the science of letters as expressed in the construction of talismanic devices. In a later section of the Panj sha'n, the Bab, now writitig in his own person, explatitis ttie importanee of this knowledge and provides a brief summary of what it entails.

Among the bounties bestowed by God on the Point of the Bayan
[i.e. the Bab]83 is the knowledge of all things in a single person
(nafs‑i ti,á/ * iid), so that he may behold the creation (takwn) in the
world of letters, with the eye of certitude. This is a perfect proof
unto all men, like the verses. It was one of those tliings hidden in
the divine knowledge which was not sent down until now, atid it is
more glorious than any other knowledge. All the [holy] books were
sent down and shall be sent down on the basis of this knowledge
. . . In brief, all things are confined to the 28 letters [of the

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[graphic]

Figure I The pat 

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alphabet]. Likewise, the creation of all things is confined to the meanings contained in these letters. God has collected together these letters in 11 degrees within His knowledge [i.e. 11 degrees corresponding to the sum of the letters há' and wáw, representing existence or huwiyyal and has established them as the talisman (haykal) of the Primal Will (mashiyyat‑i awwaliyya), which is the Primal Man (insán‑i awwal). The outward form (Záhir) of the talisman is the ha' (= 5), while its inward nature (batin) is the waw (= 6). He then created 18 talismans in the shadow of this talisman, within the ocean of names [i.e. in the world of the divine names). Nor can they become 20, for the utmost limit of the number of the names is the name mustagháth (= 2001).84

The meaning of this rather obscure passage is made somewhat clearer a few lines later, when the Bab states that this knowledge has only been revealed so that the "guides of the Bayán" may be enabled to prove to others how the whole of the Qur'an is contained in a single point. 85 This is, of course, a reference to the tradition that the whole of the F,átiha is in the bism Allah, the whole of the bism Allah in the bá', and the w6le of the ba' in the point beneath it. In Shi'i tradition, the point is identified with 'Ali. A related tradition, of considerable relevance to the present discussion, is that "knowledge is a single point which the ignorant have multiplied".
According to the system elaborated by the Bab in the Persian Baya‑n, the "Primal Point" from which all things originate is the Universal Will, which first manifests itself in the form of 19 letters, the numerical equivalent of the divine name al‑wáhid. In the religious sphere, this is expressed by the appearance of the Point in the person of the manifestation of the Universal Will, followed by his first 18 disciples, the first things to be created in each cycle. When 19 of these wahids have been brought into being, "all things" (kullu shay' = 361) are symbolically created. This process is again reflected in the structure of the Baydn in 19 sections of 19 chapters, or the Babi year of 19 months, each of 19 days. 86
	In the Kitáb~i panj sha'n, however, the Bab describes this process in a
rather more complex way, using as the basis of his system the concept of
the Primal Will as a talisman or temple, a notion that can be found in the
Persian Bayán, where God says, "there is nothing whatsoever whose
decree does not return to this human talisman (ha ' ykal‑i irisánzí). which
has been created at My command. And that talisman returns by degrees
until it reaches My Prophet."87 This procession of talismans is illustrated
in the Panj sha'n by the case of Muhammad, who is the "first talisman",
followed by the second, who is 'Ali. Although the talisman of 'Ali and
his inner being were created by Muhammad, 'Ali nevertheless possessed

what was sent down by God in the Qur'an, and this was true of eatch of the succeeding talismans through to the nineteenth, which was the
	88
fourth of the abwab.
All of this can be expressed in a more direct fashion througli the construction of actual talismans in which the pattern of the reaility underlying all creation can be discerned. In the Dalá'il‑i sab'a, which would appear to have been completed shortly after the Panj sha'n, the Bab writes that "among the firm evidences is the knowledge of all things in a single individual, the elaboration of which is on the level of miraculous inimitability (ijáz). T'his hidden and concealed knowledge has been explained in the Kitáb‑i hayákil‑i wáhid, nor was anyone aware of it before this. The fruit of it is this, that one should see in the letters how all things are joined together in I I degrees, whieh is ttie tailisniain of existence (haykal‑i huwiyyat). When you cause the first talisman to journey through the ocean of names, it reaches as far as 19, but it does not enter the number 20. ,89
The above‑mentioned Kitáb‑i hay,ákil‑i wáhid is, as is evident from a number of other sources, nothing other than the last five sections of the Kitáb‑i panj sha'n, which are devoted to the explanation of this subject. In these sections, the Bab provides practical guidance as to how to construct a series of 19 talismans containing various divine names calculated on an elaborate mathematical basis, as follows: 90
The first name is obtained by writing down the letters of the alphabet in their numerological order. Since these number 28, the divine name wah'd (= 28) is obtained.
Next, the dots representing these letters numerically are taken, these being 9 units, 18 tens (i.e. the tens plus the units), 27 hundreds (i.e. the hundreds plus the tens plus the units), and 4 thousands (i.e. the

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19

thousand plus the three other groups). 'Fhese number 58 in all, which gives us the name mahbúb (= 58).
Next, the alifs (that is, the ones) are taken, as follows: 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, 1001, 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111. There are 32 occurrences of the numeral one, so we have the name b'daw'(= 32). Like many of the names that follow, this is obviously an artificial construction of the Bab's.
This pattern is continued through the rest of the units up to nine, giving us a total of 11 names, arranged in the following talismanic device:
In this diagram, the top five lines (those of the ha') are the exterior (zahir) of the first talisman, while the bottom six (those of the waw) are its interior (batin). This first talisman, the Bab writes, is "the essence of the talismans, whereby all are created. It is the unity without numbers; you all originate in it and you shall all return to it."91
The remaining 18 talismans are constructed on the same pattern, except that the numbers used to obtain the names are doubled in the second, trebled in the third, and so on. In other words, the first talisman is constructed on the basis of alif (1), the second on the basis of bá' (2), the third on the basis of jm (3), up to tá' and yá' (19).92 In the final talisman, it is possible to see "the form of comprehensiveness" (Súrat aljam'). 93
The Bab seems to have regarded knowledge of the science of talismans as important for two connected reasons. It was, first of all, to serve as a means whereby his followers would be aided to recognize him whom God shall manifest, the messianic figure of the Bab's later works,
94 on his appearance. More significantly, perhaps, this science was seen as a rational proof of the truth of the Bab. I have already quoted a passage from the Panj sha'n in which this knowledge is declared "a perfect proof to men, like the verses", and another from the Dalá'il‑i sab'a in which it is described as a "firm evidence" and given the status of Pjaz. In the Panj sha'n, moreover, the Bab says that "this knowledge of talismans has not been sent down except as a means of evidence (istidlál) for the guides of the Bayán in respect of others, to explain how the entire Qur'an is contained in a single point and is manifested from it.,,95 More generally, "the knowledge of all things in the knowledge of the talismans of oneness" is regarded as "a proof to all that has been and will be created, providing confirmation of his unprecedented wisdom". 96 This emphasis on the need for rational proofs, which stands in contrast to the earlier stress on the need to abandon such evidences in favour of intuitive recognition of the truth, seems to have become extremely important for the Bab, who was highly sensitive to attacks made on him by the Vama', who criticized his ignorance of the religious sciences and of Arabic grammar. Towards the end of the Panj sha'n,

indeed, he writes that "it liats been proliibited in tiie Ba ' Y,áit to believe if]
a religion except through demonstration (dal'l) and evidence (btirlián),
	‑97
proof Qmfia) and certitude (qáti).
It should not be assumed, however, that the Bab intended this science of letters and tatlismains to rematin purely spectilative or evidentiairy. Even at the beginniiig of his career, he had "fashioned amulets
98
(hayakil), charms (ahraz), and talismans (tilismat)", and in an eairly work entitled the Kliasá'il‑i sab'a, he instructed each of iiis followers to wear round his neck a tailisman in his (the Bab's) haind, contatining various names of God and other mysterious devices based on.the divine names.99 Another early work, the Sah'fa bayna Tharamayn, contains a section dealing with talismans, with general instructions for their construction. IM
	In the 1anj sha'n, he instructs his followers to teach their children the
science of talismans when they reach the age of I I (the Babi age of
maturity). He ailso instructs them to write out the talismans of unity
given in the book and to protect themselves with them.'(" More
specifically, they are to read I I haykals every day, completing one cycle
		102
of readings every Babi month (i.e. in 19 days), a practice which suggests that this particular talismanic design may owe its basic shape to square Shi'i talismans used oti specific days of the week. T'he following example of such a talisman may be compared with the haykal above from the Panj sha'n. 103
In the case of talismans, perhaps more clearly thain in anv otlier instance, we can see how the Bab sought to incorporate within his system practices derived from popular Shi'ism alongside legal and ritual prescriptions of a more formal nature. T'he Persian Bayán, which is the principal text of the Babi shari'a, contains a number of regulations relating to the preparation and use of tailismans. Two baisic forms aire mentioned: the haj,kal, which is to be worn by nieii, and the dd'ira, to be worn by women. 1(4 The Persian Bayán also refers to the construction of a haykal eonsistitig of 2001 nanies of God (to the number of almustaghath). wliicii is to be worn ais ain aniulet from the moment of birth and never left off. 105 The Arabic Bayáti and the related Haykal al‑dn make it obligatory for every individual either to write or to have written for him from the moment of his conception the phrase Allahu a'zam 19 times per month; if it is light enough, this is to be carried about as a talisman. Should someone fail to complete his talisman up to the time of his death, his youngest heir is to do so for him. These amulets are, in any case, to be passed on to one's heirs."
It is not entirely clear what relationship (if any) exists between the hay‑kals described in the Panj sha'n aiiid ttiose in ttie sliape of a pentagram commonly found by that name and evidently identical with the 'triangular' tailisman referred to in the Sal.i'fa baYna Tl.tararnayn.

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[graphic]

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Figure 2 A square Shi'i talisman, from Phillott and Shirazi, Notes on certain Shi'ah Tilisms, p.534.

Pentagram haykals, many of them in the hands of the Bab and Mirza Yahya Subh‑i Azal, are quite common, consisting in general of repetitious phrases, sometimes incorporating Quranic verses and the names of Muhammad, Fatima, 'Ali, Hasan and Husayn. The following example will give some idea of the basic form: 107
There appear to be several variant forms of the da'ira or circle talisman, intended for the use of women. In the Persian Bayán, the Bab instructs that it be divided into five wahids, each to be divided into 19 sections, and that women may write within,it whatever they wish. 108 There is, however, a short but detailed treatise by the Bab, in which the method for constructing a da'ira is given step by step. 109 For an example of a talisman drawn on this pattern, see Fig. 4. It will immediately be apparent that this device is formed on fairly traditional lines, incorporating several elements derived from standard Islamic talismanic models, such as the seven seals of Solomon,"o devices formed by analogy with spectacle letters,"' and Quranic verses.
Apart from this more or less standarized form, however, there are two other styles of da'ira, one incorporating Quranic verses around a central jadwal bearing the words Allahu akbar, above which is the

Figure 3 A pentagram haykal, item 40:4 in Folder 2, E. G. Browne Oriental Collection, received from Rizwan'Ali in 1897.

phrase "and there is no god but God": and one made up of concentric circles of writing alone, in a manner bearing a close resemblance to the pattern of Mesopotamian magic bowls. 112 1 also possess a copy of a predominantly circular device made up of the complete (but slightly corrupt) text of the Lawh ‑ináqús by Mirza Husayn 'Ali Baha' Allah. The incantatory style of the original suggests a talismanic use, as does the arrangement of four verses at the corners. T'here is, indeed, a close resemblance between this figure and a da'ira found in al‑Buni's Shains al‑ma'árif. 1 13

4 Rings, engraved stones, and taittoos
Closely related to the use of talismans in Shi'ism is the wearing of engraved stones, in, the form of ringstones or pendants. The Bab laid considerable stress on the preparation and wearing of such stones, particularly as rings, and ‑ as we shall see ‑ gave directions for their use on the bodies of the dead. In the Bayán, it is made obligatory for everyone to have engraved and to wear in the form of a ring, a stone of red cornelian/agate ('aqq at‑ahmar; sic: the Bab often adds a definite

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[graphic]

[graphic]

[graphic]

22
1223

Figure 4 A Babi da'ira, printed in gold and incorporating script in the Bab's own hand, given to E. G. Browne by Subh‑i Azal in 1896. Item B.6 in Folder 3 of Browne's Oriental Collection.

article before the second element of an indefinite clause, or removes it before the first element of a definite clause) inscribed with the verse: "Say: God is the Truth, and all save God is created and all are His servants."' 14 In the same chapter, the Bab writes that "If anyone should wish to enter into the talismanic protection of God", he should order a da'ira of five circles to be inscribed on a round cornelian. In the first circle there is to be written the Throne verse, in the second the names of the circle, in the third the letters of the bism Allah, in the fourth the six names (i.e. al‑Fard, al‑Hayy, al‑Qayyúm, al‑Hakam, al‑'Adl, and alQuddús), and in the fifthwhatever is conformable to his condition and intention, but to no more than 19 letters. Similarly, it is pleasing to God if no more than 19 letters be inscribed in the first and second circles.115

Figure 5 A Babi da'ira received by E. G. Browne from Mirza Mustafa of Isfahan in 1913. Item 40:2 in Folder 2 of Browne's Oriental Collcction.

In the Hay‑kal al‑d'ti, the believers are directed to wear on their right hands a ring inscribed with two verses: "Pi~aise be to God, the mighty Power; praise be to God, the inaccessible Knowledge."116 In his commentary on the siúra al‑qadr (chapter 97 of the Qur'an), the Bab writes: "That figure is one of the letters of the greatest name, which 'Ali spoke of in what he said. Its form is this:

There is no one who shall inscribe [with it] a ringstone of red, Yemeni ruby but shall gather together all good, and it shall be his protection (hirz) from all evil, for it is the greaitest natme which haith spoken of the Three Degrees in the 'I'oraiii and the Four Names in ttie Gosl)el and the Five Names."" 7 T'he relationship between this use of the traditional Shi'i "greatest name" symbol and the later Baha'i "ringstone symbol" will be discussed in Chapter 3, section 3.

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For those who are able, it is obligatory to inscribe the words "Praise be to God" on a peerless diamond and to give it, with their own hands, into the keeping of the Oa'im. 118 It is again obligatory for everyone to own a yellow ruby (la'al al‑aSfar), on which the words "Praise is God's" are to be inscribed, this to be given to the first person to announce to him tidings of the advent of him whom God shall manifest. 119 It is also an obligation to inscribe the "word of unity" (kalimat al‑tawh'd ‑ i.e. "There is no god but God") on a green emerald and to give it to whoever reads the book of God on the promised day. For those who are able, this instruction should be carried out on a ruby (yáqút). 120 We shall encounter another use of a ring in our later discussion of pilgrimage. In the Haykal al‑dn, the Bab makes it obligatory for his followers, if they are able, to possess 19 rings and 19 sheets of fine paper. 121 It would appear to be these same rings and sheets which the Persian Bayán states are to be left to one's heirs, the rings being each inscribed with one of the names of God. 122
In a chapter of the Persian Bayán dealing with matters relating to bathing and personal hygiene, the Bab instructs men to tattoo the word al‑rahman (the Merciful) on their chest, and women the word Allahumma (0 God). It is permissible to write more than these two words, but no directions are given for other phrases. 123

5 Fasting (sawm, siyam)
The Bab does not give detailed regulations concerning fasting Sawm, ~iyám. He ordains a fast of 19 days (i.e. one Babi month) at the end of the year,' 24 specifically in the last month, 'Alá', 125 during which believers are to abstain between sunrise and sunset from food and drink, sexual intercourse, disputation (even on matters of learning), violence and passing decrees against God. Fasting is not obligatory for either men or women until the age of 11 (the Babi age of maturity), although they may do so until noon ‑ if they continue after that, they are not fasting. Similarly, one is not to fast after the age of 42 and will not be regarded as fasting if one continues to do so. 126

6 Pilgrimage (hajj and ziyara)
Perhaps the most significant injunction issued by the Bab with regard to pilgrimage is for the destruction (or, possibly, abrogation ‑ raising up: irtifá') of the shrines of the past, including those in Kufa, the Ka'ba, and the graves of the Imams and their descendants. 127 New shrines are to be established in their place. In the Persian Bayán, the Bab indicates that he is to be buried "in one of the twin shrines", which (especially in view of his own use of the term in the Sah'ífa bayna Tharamayn) may be a reference to Mecca and Medina. No regulation is given here for a pilgrimage to this place, although it is stated that an edifice (bayt) is to

be built here (cf. the use of bayl witti referetice to Jertisaileiii aiii(i ttic Ka'ba in Ba),án, 4:12), which is to be made of mirrors (prestiniatbly in the manner of Shi'i shrines like Shah Chiragh in Shiratz). 128 In the Arabic Bayán, however, it is laid down as an obligation on believers to visit the house of the Bab in Shiraz, his tomb, the tombs of ttie I.,etters of the Living, and the mosques (presumably tile mosques of the Letters of the Living and those associated with the first two places) ‑ provided the individual is capable of doing so.' 29
	Properly speaking, the new ka'ba or house of God (ba ' Y,t Alláli) wats to
be the house of the Bab in Shiraz. This edifice wais to mcatsure 36 cubits
(dhar') in length and breadth (not including the walls). If it were
possible, the believers would be commanded to fi11 it from the surface of
the water (? in the pool) to its top with diatnioiids aiitd to replaicc its eairtli
with *elixir (iksr) atti(.1 its waiter with red perfutiie ('atr‑i al ' intar). But,
since this is impossible, any suitatble form will do, although it would be
ideal if it could be covered with segnients of nlirror. 130 A mosque (tlie
masfid al‑I * tarain) is to be built on the spot wtiere tiie 13aib ~w,ats born, 
aiiid
another beside the tiouse of God. 131 'I‑fie tomb of his son Alimad, who
was still‑born, is to be placed within the precincts of the ma.5fid al
haram, and is to be treatcd as a plaice of praiyer. 132
Pilgrimage to this new house is ordained, but those who aire sepairatted from it by a stretch of sea are absolved of the obligation and are instead to give wilatever monies they would have spent on the journey to ai believing relative. 13 ‑' Alternatively, they may pay trustees (awhya') to perform the pilgrimage on their behailf. 134 The performaince of tlle hajj is incumbent on all males once in their lives, but on the condition that the pilgrim possesses sufficient funds to travel without discomfort. Otherwise, it is not permissible to make the pilgrimage. On arrival at the bayt, the pilgrim must paty four niithqals of gold to the 19 servants who look after it and the pilgrims; slaves, servants, children, those who have been plundered on the way and those who are unable to do so are absolved from paying this sum.' 35 T'he 19 servaints of the hotise are not to ask for this suin attid aire to sliaire (lie nioiiey be(weeii tlictiiselvcs oiice ai yealr.' 36
	Pilgrimage may not be purchatsed for soineone who is deaid (by
sending someone in his place), but, if someone has been planning to
have another perform the pilgrimage on his behalf and dies before this
takes plaice, then his intention to do so will be recognized by God.
Women are absolved from the performance of the pilgrimaige, to save
them the hardship of travel. Those who live in the land of ttie house
(Shiratz) or in its etiviroiis must, liowever, perforiii at pilgriniage 
eaicti
year. 137 This includes tile woiiien of this region, wlio airc to v,isit 
ttie
house of God by night, whenever tlley wish; they are to sit on scatts 
next
to the "manifestations of the unity" (niazá)iir al‑wái * zid ‑ the 19
servants of the house), praise God aind return to their homes. 138 T‑
hey

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are also expected to go by night to the masjid al‑haram, apparently after performing the circurnambulation of the house, and to sit there with 19 women (seemingly 19 female servants of the mosque). '39
The Bab does not appear to have detailed anywhere the pilgrimage rites associated with the hajj to Shiraz, but a number of relevant injunctions do exist. It was made obligatory for anyone entering Shiraz to prostrate himself at the threshold of the city, and we may assume that this was a preliminary rite of the hajj. 140 Circurnambuiation (tawáf) of the house is mentioned in a number of places, 14 ' but the number of times is not specified. The house itself was to be entered by the pilgrims, who were to pray there, 142 although the form and content of their prayers were again not specified by the Bab. As we shall see, these omissions in the Babi hajj were all rectified by Baha' Allah in laying down the provisions for Baha'i pilgrimage.
Aside from the hajj, the Bab envisaged other pilgrimages (ziyarat) to be performed by his followers. Whereas in Shi'ism there have come into existence (as in North African Islam) numerous shrines and tombs to which ziyarat may be made, the Bab sought to limit these to the restingplaces of the 19 "Letters of Unity" (i.e. himself and the 18 Letters of the Living), who were regarded as the manifestations in the Babi cycle of Muhammad, Fatima, the 12 Imams, and the four gates, together with himself as the "Primal Point,,.143 Tombs were to be erected over these 19 sacred remains,144 and all other graves were to be regarded as in their shadow, removing the need to perform pilgrimages to any place but the 19 shrines. 145 Right of refuge and pardon was to be extended to any who might seek it at these shrineS146 or even express the intention of so doing. 147
Those performing ziyara to one of these shrines were expected to fulfil certain conditions of physical and ritual cleanliness: "if you desire to perform a visitation to [the shrine of] the Point [i.e. the Bab] or one of the Letters of the Living, you must purify yourself absolutely, to such an extent that, if you become aware of a hair too many on your body, it is not seemly for you. Put on your purest clothes ‑ not [necessarily] the greatest in value ‑ even should you wear an old, pure, goodly, fine, clean shirt, such that you know not of even a speck of black from a mosquito on it. And if you are aware of such, it is not seemly for you. And when you find yourself in that most glorious, noble and exalted condition, put on [your fingerl a ring of red cornelian, which shall be your guide in this path before your Lord, the Majestic, and in your appearing before God upon the Throne of Majesty. ,118 Detailed instructions for purifications, prayers and so forth to be used in the course of a ziyara to the shrine of Shaykh Tabarsi may be found in the ziyaratnama for the martyrs killed there. 149

	T'he basic rite for ai pilgritnaige of this type would tl)peatr to be, ats in
Shi'ism. the reading of a "tatblet of visitation" (zi ' yarainaina). Oiie of the
earliest works of the Bab was a ziyaratnama for the Imarn 'Ali 150and he
continued to write large numbers of these works, 151 including a Zi ' Y,áira
ját?ii'a al‑kal)r(i (taiblet of visitattioii for aill the Iiiiziiiis),15~ aiii(i ‑‑i ' y,tit‑
tis for
the Babi niairtyrs of Sliaiykh 'I'abairsi. 153 A niaiiiuscript (6007.C) iii the
Baha'i Archives in T'chran contains no fewer than 31 ziy,aras belonging
to the Bab's later period, including tablets for Mul)a Iiusayn Bushru'i
("the first to believe" ‑ awwal inan ái?iatia) attid other l.etters of the
Living. A ziyarafnanza writteii for the chief of the Letters of the I‑ivirig,
Mulla Muhammad 'Ali Barfurushi Quddus, is included in translation in
Appendix IV. In aiddition to the ziyaras for himself and the Letters of
the Living, the Bab also decreed that, after his (icaitli, the believ,crs
should recite 95 tirnes the phraise "God is Most Great" or "God is Most
Mighty", and that they should restrict theniselves to five repetitions of
Allahu akbar for the Letters of the Living. 154
	A restricted form of zi ' y,ara is ordatiticd in t[ic Ba),áit for the
inhabitants of 'I'abriz ("the place of the striking" ‑ a reference to the
bastinado inflicted on the liaib there in 1848) attid for those living iii its
environs to ai distance of 66 farsakhs (about 396 kilometres) %W,Iio alre
over the age of 29 (his age at the time of the baistitiado). 'I'liey aire to
travel to the scene of tiie bastinaido once a year aind to reiiiatin there for
19 days (one Babi month), during which time they must praictise self
purification (iaklil's). On the spot itself, they are comtilanded to
perform a salat of five rak'at. Wlioever is tinaible to maike ttie journey is
required to cairry out tliesc iiistructioiis in his o~v‑ri house.""'
In anotlier v~ei‑sioii, this rite is iiiaide iilctiiiibciit on all I)clie~crs, consisting of two rak'at, followed by invocitions, the tincovering of the he;id, sittiiig on the grotiiid witliotit saiii(lails, aiiid tiic rciiiovall of aill clotliiiig (except, I should thitik, tliatt coveritig the privalle pairts). 'I'lley are not to leatvc before 19 daiys have elapsed, remaining in nieditattional seclusion (i'likájf) atnd praiising God. A prayer is given by the Bab to be said on leatving Tabriz. 156

7 Rituail purity and impurity
The concepts of purity (taiiár(i) and impurity (Yiajástilj(i?iáha) aire of considerable iniportance in Shi'isni, aind ait the begintiiiig of liis catrecr the Bab w,rote more than once on their legal definitions. T*he Rivála ffirtú' al‑'adfiyya (chapters one and two) and a short work entitled Kitáb al‑taliára (The Book of Purity) contain detatiled discussions of rittiall cleatiiliiiess before salat and the aigeticies which iiiaiy render the individual free from ai staite of impurity. Thus, in the faitter work I I itliptire items (iiajását) are listed, which maty affect pratyer by being present on one's clothes or body, on the part of the forehead touching the ground

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in prostration (al‑masjad al‑jabha), in mosques or on copies of the Qur'an, or in the holy shrines. They are: urine; excrement; blood; semen; a dead body; a dog; a roast pig or part of it; intoxicating liquor; fermented raisins or dates (zabb); an unbeliever (mushrik or káfir); and an apostate (murtadd). Ten purifying agents are then mentioned, including water, earth and the sun. 157
In the Risálafurú'al‑'adliyya, a somewhat different list is given of the causes of impurity, being ten in number: sleep; unconsciousness; illness causing unawareness; urine; faeces; semen; the state of menstruation; menstrual discharge; a woman up to 40 days after childbirth; and touching the dead body of a believer after the body is cold and before it is washed. 1‑58 Directions are then given for ablutions (wudu' and ghusl) to cleanse the individual from these impurities, whether by the use of water or of earth. 159 Further instructions are given concerning the method of determining whether water is pure, and it is stipulated that certain things may render it unclean: anything from the hand of an unbeliever or one who denies the Imams or who does not believe in the twelfth Imam (baqiyyat Allah), urine, faeces, animals whose flesh is interdicted, dead bodies, whatever has not been rendered lawful by the recitation of the name of God over it, blood, dogs, wine, pigs and anything else declared najis by the Imams.160 Water that has been thus polluted may again be rendered pure by various agents ‑ the sun, earth, the removal of an animal, alteration, circulation, the blood of the Imams, and "those things which have fallen beneath the gaze of the Family of God" .161 The Bab himself states that, although none of the lulama' has mentioned this last agent, the decision about it rests with him (as the ná'ib ‑ representative ‑ of the Imam).
It is of interest to note that, when the Risála furú' at‑adliyya reached Karbala, Qurrat al‑'Ayn (the female leader of the Babis there) read this last instruction, whereupon she claimed to be the manifestation of Fatima and said that "the glance of my eye has the same effect as that of hers, and whatever I cast my glance upon shall be made pure". She then instructed her followers to bring whatever they brought in the bazaar to her, so that she might render it lawful. 162 This is of particular interest in indicating that many of the Babis in this early period regarded their Shi'i fellow‑citizens as impure because of their unbelief.
In his later works, although he does not enter into such precise details as in those of the early period, the Bab continues to exhibit a marked concern for ritual purity and physical cleanliness, the demarcation between the two often being blurred. In general, it is probably fair to say that the Bab places less emphasis on ritual purity (which he makes less particular) and greater emphasis on bodily hygiene and related matters than the Shi'i 'ulama'. Thus, "nothing in the Bayán is loved more by God than purity, delicacy, and cleanliness",' 63 and again: "In

the Ba),án, God does not like to behold for anyone aught save joy and fragrance. He loves all to be in the utmost purity, both spiritual (ma'naw') and physical (Súr), in whatever state they be in, that they may not be disgusting to their own selves, how much less to anyone eisc."164
Various purifying agents are mentioned by the Bab in his later works. In the Persian Bayán, he lists eight of these: (1) Belief in the Bayátt; (2) The book of God or a verse of it; (3) The name of God, to be spoken over the thing to be purified 66 times, using the phrase "God is the Most Pure" (Alláhu athar); (4) The act of passing from the hands of nonBabis into those of believers; (5) The Tree of Truth (i.e. himself) and its works; (6) The four elements (air, fire, water, earth); (7) The sun; and (8) Anything that has undergone an alteration of essence. 165 In the Haykal al‑dn, he lists these agents as: (1) The recitation of "God is Most Pure" 66 times; (2) Whatever has been sent down in the Bayán; (3) Whoever enters the faith; (4) Whatever has changed in essenee; (5) T'he sun, the moon and the stars; (6) Fire and air; and (7) Water aind earth.166 And in the Arabic Bayán, he lists the following: (1) The recitation of "God is the Most Pure" 66 times; (2) The Point (i.e. himself) and whatever verses he writes; (3) His words; (4) Whoever enters the faith; (5) Whatever changes its essence; (6) I'he four elements; and (7) The sun. 167 According to the Persian Bayán, all of these purify whenever the object to be rendered pure is not in its essence impure (as, for example, a pig). 168 All things are regarded as pure except those who do not believe in the Bayán and whatever is expressly forbidden. 161
A number of things are specified as pure, including some which had been regarded as doubtful or impure in Islam. These are: dogs and other animals, even if their fur is wet;' 70 blood in the mouth after the use of a toothbrush or toothpick; the foot of an animal which has been in the rain and which enters a room; 171 (in respect of someone who wishes to pray) the hair of animals, European objects, ivory and bone handles ; , 72 semen; 173 the faeces of a child up to the age of two; 174 tile excreta of animals in general ; 175 more specifically, that of mice, bats or owls (abábfl). 176 The wearing of silk and the use of gold and silver vessels, regarded as unlawful in Islam, is permitted by the Bab. 177
Nevertileless, wtidli' or rittiati cleaiiisiiig is still recotiiliieli(lcd iri al number of circumstances. After meals (which are to be eaten in the position known 'as haykal al‑tawhid), if one wishes to pray, it is necessary to perform wudu', washing both face and arms and wiping them with a silk cloth, this to be done while in the haykal al‑tawhid posture, with clean water (such as rose water). If there is no water, five repetitions of the phrase "In the name of God" will suffiee for the wudu'. 1 78 Nocturnal emissions and masturbated semen (niá tashhadiúna

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fi 'I‑ruyá aw anturn bi‑anfusikurn 'an anfusikurn tastamaniyún) are not a cause of impurity, but it is necessary to perform wudu' after sexual intercourse. After the wudu', one is to prostrate oneself (or, according to the Haykal al‑dn, to sit with one's wife) and to repeat 19 times: "Praise be to Thee, 0 my God; there is no god but Thee; praise be to Thee; I am one of those who prostrate thcmselves." This is sufficient if there is no water, and it also suffices to wash the head, chest, arms and legs after the wudu'. 179
Similarly, the complex Islamic regulation concerning the purity of water in wells and the rule of kurr (the largest amount of water which can be rendered impure by a dog or whatever) is abolished by the Bab, a single rule covering both large and small quantities of water. Water is pure in itself provided it has not changed in any of its three basic qualities: colour, smell or taste.18( To pour water twice on something that has been rendered unclean (but is not in its nature unclean) suffices to make it pure again; to dip the object once in water is sufficient for this purpose, provided the water is not of such little quantity as to excite one's disgust. 181 If water should be altered by something impure, it may not be used for purification, but something pure will not render water impure, even if it changes its character.' 82 Water which has been mixed with earth is not regarded as water which has been added to (itiudáf), with which purification is not permitted. Nothing is more loved by God than to keep water in a state of the utmost purity, to such an extent that, if a believer becomes aware that a cup of water has been placed on an impure spot, he will be grieved. But it is made clear that "God does not like anyone to be minute in matters of purity, which will lead to what will in the end cause harm to that individual; rather, the believer is too glorious for anything to change him. Nay, all the instructions regarding purity have been given that men may be educated to the degree of delicacy and purity, to such an extent that no one may be disgusted by anything in himself, how much less in another. ,183 The true meaning of purity is to cleanse oneself of all that does not pertain to God.' 84

8 Rites of birth, death and marriage
A special form of salat is indicated by the Bab in the case of the birth of a child. This consists of five takbirs (i.e. recitals of the phrase Allahu akbar, "God is Most Great"), the first followed by the repetition 19 times of the phrase "We all, verily, believe in God" (intzá kullun bi'lláili mu'minún) the second by 19 "We all, verily, are certain of God" (múqinún), the third by 19 "We all, verily, live through God" (tnuhayyún), the fourth by 19 "We all, verily, die through God" (mumayyitún), and the fifth by 19 "We all, verily, are content with God" (rádiyún). 185 The ritual as given in the Arabic Bayán differs somewhat from this. Thus, the words "God is Most Mighty" (Allalzu

a'zanz) are to be repeated five times, while standing. The following phrases are to be repeated 19 times, one after each ta'zitn: (1) "We all, verily, believe in God"; (2) "We all, verily, are certain of God"; (3) "We all, verily, originate with God" (iiiiibdi'ú?i); (4) "We all, verily, return to God" (inu"dú.?i) (sic); (5) "We all, verily, aire content with God". 186 1 have atiready mentioned above ttie instruction to prcpaire ain amulet with 2001 nanies to the nuniber of niustaghath, which is to be given to a child at birth and never removed from that time forth. Suitable names for children are suggested by the Bab in a number of places. 187
Extremely similar to the salat prescribed for the birth of a child is the prayer decreed for the dead, which is, in faict, the only pratyer which may be said congregational ly. 188 T'he greater the number present, the more pleasing it is to God, but no one is to lead the prayer; all are to remain in their places and not to seek to staiid in front of others.189 The salat consists of six takbirs, the first followed by 19 repetitions of "We all, verily, worship God" ('ábidrún), the second by 19 "We atll, verilv, bow down before God" (sájidiún), the third by 19 "We all, verily, are satisfied with God" (qá?iitú.n), the fourth by "We all, verily, maike mention of God" (dhákiriútt), the fifth by "We all, verily, give thanks unto God" (sliákiriúiz), and the sixth by "We aill, verily, are paitient in God" (Sábiriúti). 19"'I'he version of this salat given in the Arabic Bay‑á?i is again different. Six la'ziins are to be said over the dead, then the following phrases are repeated 19 times: (1) "We all, verily, worship God" (2) "We all, verily, bow down before God" (3) "We all, verily, are satisfied witli God" (4) "We all, verily, act on behalf of God" ('ái?iiliúii); (5) "We all, verily, are devoted unto God" (ttziiklilislúrl); (6) "We all, verily, give praise unto God" (háinidún).191
	Directiotis coiicernitig the washing aind buriati of the dead are given 
in
	detail in the Persian Bayáti. T'he corpse is to be washed once, three 
or
	five times, in the following manner: (1) The head, while saying "0
	Single One" (y‑á fard); (2) The chest and belly, while saying "0 
Living
	One" (,á ha ' Y, " Y,), (3) The riglit airm, while satying "0 Self‑
stil)sistilig
One" (y,á qay '	(4)'I'he left airni, while saying "0 Judging One" (y,a
	hakam); (5) 'I'lie right leg, while saying "0 Just Oiie9' (yá 'adl); (6) 
The
	left leg, while saying "0 Holy One" (y,á qiiddu.s). 192 The names of 
God
	used here are the "six names" which liave been mentioned in connec
	tion with the da'irat (see Appendix 111). The body is to be washed 
with
	water or purified with camphor and lotus (sidr) and, if possible, 
waished
	agatin with rose waiter or other perftime(I waiter. then wrapped iti 
fik'e
	shrouds of any iiiatteriail. 'I'hese stirotids may haive writtet) 
('?enibroid
	ered) on them ainy names of God, up to, but not exceeding, 19.'" Oil
	the right liaind at ring is to be plaiced, with the following inscription 
if tile
	deceatsed is a niain: "Unto God belongs all that is in the lieavens airid 
ttie

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32

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earth and what is between them; God is informed of all things." If the deceased is a woman: "To God belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between them; God is powerful over all things. ,194 These verses are given differently in the Arabic Baya‑n. Thus, on a man's ring should be written: "Unto God belongs all that is in the heavens and the earth and what is between them; God is Most Knowing, Powerful, Inaccessible." And on a woman's: "Unto God belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and what is between
,,195 them; God is Most Knowing, Powerful, Inaccessible. In the HHaykal al‑d'n, it is directed that two rings be placed on the hands of the dead, without distinction between male and female. On the right‑hand ring is to be inscribed: "We are all, verily, God's, and we all, verily, begin in God"; and, on the left: "We are all, verily, from Him and we shall all, verily, return to Him."196 The rings used for the dead are to be of cornelian. 197
The dead are to be placed in coffins or tombs of crystal or marble or polished stone,198 and an amount of dust from the graves of "the first and the last" ‑presumably the first and last Letters of the Living, Mulla Muhammad Husayn Bushru'i and Mulla Muhammad'Ali Barfurushi Quddus ‑ is to be buried with them. 199 Relatives of the deceased are to visit their graves at least once every 19 days, or more often if possible and, if they can, stay by the grave for 19 days, reciting the divine verses and lighting lamps. 200 The Islamic mourning rites, involving tearing of one's clothes and beating of the body, are prohibited by
201 the Bab.
Marriage is ordained by the Bab at the age of 11, the age of maturity,
202, for both male and female. 'It is conditional on the payment of a dowry, the limits of which are set down in the Bayán, and on the consent of both parties, although it is obligatory for parents to marry their children at this age if they can. 203 The marriage rite is basically very simple. According to the Persian Bayán, the man, having paid the requisite dowry, is to repeat the verse "Verily, I belong to God, the Lord of the heavens and the Lord of the earth, the Lord of all things, the Lord of the seen and the unseen, the Lord of the worlds." The woman is then to do the same, after which they are to put their seals on a sheet of paper, the whole process to be formally observed by witnesses on behalf of both parties, preferably relatives .204 The rite as given in the Arabic Bayán and the Haykal al‑dn differs somewhat from the above. In the former, the instruction is that the couple should place their seals on the contract 205 and then say the words (presumably one after the other): "Verily, we are content with God. ,206 In the latter work, the details are clearer. The woman is to say first the words: "Verily, we are content with God" (using the feminine form) and then to place her seal on the
	207
contract. 	Then the man is to repeat this phrase (in the masculine

form, but different from that in the Arabic Bayátz )2118 aiiid to platee his seal on the contract. After this, the witnesses (whose number is not specified) are to place their seals on the contract, the men placing 60 seals beneath that of the groom, the women 95 seals beneath ttiait of the bride. The next plirase is unclear and exists in two readings, but seems
	2019
to mean that the marriage should be consummated after this.

9 Festivatis
As has already been mentioned, the Bab reformed the calendar, introducing a solar year of 19 months, each of 19 days (details of this calendar are given in Appendix V).2 10 However, he did not indicate any festivals, with the exception of Naw‑RFuz, the old Iranian New Year's Day, which falls on 21 or 22 Maircii. 21 1 T'his is described as the day of "there is no god but God" and is compared to the Point (nuqta) in the
212
Bayán. It is also known as the "Day of God', on which goodly acts will receive the recompense due to the same acts performed for the period of one year. 2 13 On the night of Naw‑Ruz (i.e. tile night preceditig it, in Western terms), it is permitted to recite the followi[ig verse 361 times: "God has borne witness that there is no god but Him, the Protector, the Self‑subsistent" and, during the day, the same number of times: "God has borne witness that there is no god but Him, the Mighty, the Beloved" ‑ or any other verse beginning with "God has borne witness" and mentioning His power. 214 Those who, during Naw‑Ruz, recite "there is no god but God" (tawh'd kunad khudá‑rá) 361 times will be protected during the coming year from "whatsoever may descend from the heaven of destiny" .215 The Arabic Bayán only mentions the second of the above verses, but adds that, during the night of Naw‑Ruz
216
one is to enumerate the benefits of God from 19 to 2001 times. In the
Haykal al‑dn. the Bab instructs his followers to mention God 361 times
	217
during Naw‑Ruz, apparently using any phrase they wish, and to count God's blessings during the night 19 times (or up to 2001 times for kings) .21 8 At the time when the sun actually enters the sign of Aries, it is permitted to serve from 19 to 2001 plates of food (whereas it is normally
211
permitted to serve only one at a time).
The first month, Bahá', is regarded as the most important of the year. The first day, as noted above, is the "day of the Point", while the other 18 days are sacred to the 18 Letters of the Living. 22(l Similarly, the first month is regarded as the "month of the Point", especially dedicated to him whom God shall manifest, and the other months as those of the Letters of the Living. 221 In the Haykal al‑dn, it is stipulated that the second month of each year (or another, if one wishes) is to be devoted
222
to the mention of God. There do not, however, appear to be any
rituals connected with the months in these contexts, apart from the invocations for each day of the month mentioned earlier. Once a month,

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35

each believer is expected to invite as guests 19 individuals, even if he is able to serve them only water. 123 Although this does not in itself involve or constitute a particular ritual, it is important as the basis for the later Baha'i "Nineteen‑Day Feast" (see below, p. 65).
Friday is reserved, not as a day of congregational prayer, as in Islam, but as a day for listening to sermons. 224 The formal sermon (khutba) is to be followed by impassioned preaching (maw'iza) and by mention of him whom God shall manifest. 225 These Friday gatherings are to be held 226
in the mosques which.the Bab ordered constructed. The use of a pulpit is prohibited, this being replaced by a chair or, in a large 227 gathering, a chair placed on a platform to enable all present to hear. Sermons are also to be given on "the days of glory and sadness"228 presumably commemorations of joyful or sad events in the Babi calendar; but these days are nowhere specified by the Bab.

10 Rites connected with him whom God shall manifest (man yuzhiruhu '11ah)
Many of the rituals listed in the above pages are connected indirectly by the Bab with the messianic figure of the Bayán, him whom God shall manifest ‑ thus, by performing such and such an act, it is hoped that the believer will enter into the presence of man yuzhiruhu '11ah when he appears and that he will believe in him. Similarly, as we have seen, there are invocations of him whom God shall manifest, there is a month dedicated to him, and there is to be mention of him during the Friday gatherings. But there are also three quasi‑rituals connected specifically with him. The first is that, whenever his name is mentioned, all present are to stand.229 The second is that, whenever his name or the names of his Letters of the Living are mentioned, the believers are to bless them (by saying "May God bless him/them and preserve him/them"). This is also to be done on hearing the names of the Bab or his Letters of the Living. 230 If their names are being repeated constantly, one phrase of blessing will be sufficient. 23 1 The third is that, in every important gathering 19 places are to be left vacant in case he whom God shall 232
manifest and his Letters should appear. In the Arabic Bayán, it is stated that this is only necessary in large gatherings, and that it normally suffices to leave one place vacant. 233

11 Ritualism in scriptural texts
In view of the extensive references. which will be made to incantatory texts in the section on Baha'i ritual, it may be worth mentioning here the important part played by the style of many of the Bab's writings in creating a generally ritual atmosphere, even when specific rites are not being carried out. 'Me rhyming prose (saj') of the Qur'an, which

possesses a vibrant, incantatory quality most marked in the earliest suras, has led to considerable stress being laid in Islam on the chanting of its verses, on sacred occasions and at gatherings convened simply for that purpose. The rhyming, rhythmical cadences of the Otir'an are clearly reproduced in many of the Baib's early works, most notail)lv ttie Qayy,tútii al‑astnj'. In certain later works, however, the Bab goes beyond this familiar style to produce lengthy passages, consisting largely of invocations of God by an infinitude of names (many of them quite unheard of in Arabic, although based on theoretical patterns), in which content is entirely secondary to the all‑important incantatory style, a style quite unreproducible in any European languaige. Most notable for this characteristic are the Kitáb al‑asmá' and the Kitáb‑i panj sha'n (Sliu'úti‑i kharnsa), in which variaition after variation is played on the names of God. Chanted by an expert, I have no doubt ttiat these passages, curious as they are on the written page, would prove extremely compelling, even hypnotic. I provide an example of this style from the Pa?ij sha'n in Appendix VI.

BABI RITUAL PRACTICE
Little can be said of Babi practice in rituail matters. T'he early Babis were often exceedingly ignorant of the tenets and laws of their religion, particularly the uneducated in Zanjan and elsewhere in the later years of the Bab's career. The Bab's isolation and the scattered and beleagured condition of the mass of his followers from about 1848 meant that the later Babi texts, such as the Bayátis, were little read and their contents only partially known. 234 Collation of the varying decrees spread over different volumes was, of course, quite impossible. Babi writing of this period and that immediately succeeditig, such ats ttie Kitáb‑i niiqtat al‑káf, shows that coiisiderable doctrinal diversity existed, and there is every reason to believe that Babi practiee, unregulated and unco‑ordinated, was seldom fully or at all in accordance with the code of the Ba),átz. During the struggle att Shaykh 'I'abairsi, from 1848 to 1849, for exaniple, sonic of the Babis looked on their leader, Mulla Muhammad 'Ali Barfurushi Quddus, as the qibla and faced in his direction when performing salat; on the night of the 'Id alQurban, Mulla Flusayn Bushru'i and others perforiiied circutilainibtilattion around the house of Quddus ‑ a practice which they continued on 23',
other nights. When we consider that a fair number of those present at Tabarsi were 'ulanza' and that no fewer than half of the Bab's earliest disciples, the Letters of the Living, were among them, it is not difficult to conjecture the nature of Babi ritual observance in Zanjan, Nayriz, Tehran, Oazvin and elsewhere. The Niiqtat al‑kOf mentions that the Babis in Zanjan prayed five times each night "in a new manner", and att each of the ramparts one individual would chant the phrase "God is

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36

Most Glorious" (Allahu abha) 92 times (the equivalent of the name 236
Muhammad).
After the relative recovery of the now decimated Babi communities from the setbacks of 1848‑52, access to texts remained difficult and much was destroyed or corrupted. Even with widespread copying of the Persian Bayán and other late works, no attempt seems to have been made to systematize Babi law and ritual or to correlate the varying regulations which, as we have seen, are often confused or contradictory or, in a number of cases, in need of commentary. More importantly, the failure of the Babis to develop a well‑defined organization, coupled with a lack of positive leadership, meant that no overall policy could be formulated in respect of ritual practice. The majority of Babis, from about 1866 onwards, gave their allegiance to Mirza Husayn 'Ali Nuri Baha' Allah, under whom a new religious system, with its own legal and ritual prescriptions, came into existence ‑ this will form the subject of the second part of our study. But the remainder (with the exception of a small group of Kullu Shay'i Babis in Shiraz), who attempted to preserve Babism in its original form under the leadership of Mirza Yahya Nuri Subh‑i Azal, lacked the doctrinal and organizational coherence of the major group. Azal seems to have been unable to extricate Babism from the state of doctrinal anarchy into which it fell in the period immediately following the death of the Bab in 1850, as is clear from Azali works such as the Hasht bihisht. The breakdown of any clear authority in Azali Babism after the death of Mirza Yahya in 1912 meant that the small and poorly organized community of Babis in Iran failed to formulate any definite policy on matters of doctrine, law or ritual. The only effort in this direction known to the present writer is the anonymous A "n‑i Báb, a short work which falls far short of comprehensiveness or systematic presentation. It is likely that the major rituals of the Persian and Arabic Bayáns continue to be observed, where possible, by the Azalis today, but undoubtedly many of the more complex regulations have been allowed to fall into abeyance, while those which would demand greater religious freedom (or a Babi state), such as the hajj, are clearly impossible to perform properly.

Chapter Three
Baha'i Ritual Observances

The Baha'i faith, as it gradually emerged from Babism under the leadership of Mirza Husayn 'Ali Baha' Allah, developed a distinct character in terms of both doctrine and practice. Baha' Allah himself provided the basic laws and rituals of Baha'ism in a number of works written after 1866, notably the Kitáb al‑aqdas and its companion volume the Risála‑yi su'ál wa jawáb. As will become clear in succeeding pages, Baha' Allah based his shari'a very firmly on the legal system of the Bab, reducing the complex regulations of the Bayán to a more manageable and systematic code, abrogating many of the more severe Babi laws, and simply abandoning others whose application seemed impractical. Where gaps existed in respect of Babi observance, these were normally fiIled by fresh legislation, commentary, or the provision of suitable texts. The justification for this wholesale revision of the Babi shari'a lies in Baha' Allah's claim to be he whom God shall manifest, on whose acceptance or rejection the Bab had made the entire Batyaitiic code dependent. Thus, in the Lawh‑i ishráqát, Baha' Allah states: "His holiness the Herald [i.e. the Bab] ... sent down certain laws, but the realm of command was subject to acceptance. Wherefore this oppressed one has promulgatted some of them and sent them down in the Kitáb‑i aqdas in different terms, while we have suspended others . . . and some laws have been sent down afresh."'
Under the later direction of the eldest son of Baha' Allaih, 'Abbas Effendi 'Abd al‑Baha' (d.1921), and the latter's grandson Shoghi Effcndi Rabbani (d.1957), Baha'ism continued to develop its character as a distinct religious system, with its own laws, institutions and observainces ‑ a process carried on since 1963 under the aegis of the elected "Universal House of Justice" (bayt al‑'adl al‑a'zam). During this period, the movement has placed considerable emphasis on the need for doctrinal uiiity, combined with flexibility and regional variation in subsidiary matters of organization and even religious practice.

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I propose to deal in the remainder of the present study only with ritual and semi‑ritual observances either prescribed or sanctioned by Baha'i scriptural texts in Persian or, more usually, Arabic. Needless to say, this provides us with a prescriptive rather than actual picture of Baha'i practice. Actual practice is complicated by a number of factors. 'The spread of the religion in the West and, in recent decades, in South America, Africa, India, South‑East Asia and elsewhere has added a new dimension to the question of ritual observance. Baha'is from Islamic backgrounds are normally better informed about legal and ritual requirements and are required to observe a greater number of religious obligations than their fellow‑believers from Christian, Buddhist and other backgrounds. This situation is intensified by the fact that the majority of Baha'i texts dealing with legal or ritual matters are still available only in Persian or Arabic. Although a full study of Baha'i ritual would involve widespread fieldwork in Europe, North America, India and elsewhere, it would be necessary to make a distinction between regional variations in actual Baha'i observance and the persistence of local custom in more traditional societies. It would also be necessary to study in detail and on a broad basis the question of ritual innovation representing a modification of traditional ritual, or of what we might term "pseudo‑ Baha'i " practices (taking genuinely Baha'i
ractices in the prescriptive sense). I have included an example of one such innovation in the second of the following sections.

1 Salat and associated observances
(i) Salat. The question of salat in Baha'ism is slightly complicated by the fact that the original form of prayer to be used was later abrogated by a different format incorporating three different prayers. In the Kitáb al‑aqdas, 2 Baha' Allah states that "salat and fasting are obligatory for you from the age of maturity". 3 The age of maturity, which was 11 in
4
Babi law, is raised to 15 by Baha' Allah. The Aqdas itself contains the injunction to perform a salat of nine rak'as three times per day: "Prayer has been written down for you: nine prostrations unto God, the Revealer of the verses, at the time of noon, and in the morning, and in the evening; we have exempted you from the other number as a command in the book of God. ,5 The details of this salat were, according
6
to the Aqdas, to be found in another work.
The fate of this salat is difficult to determine. It seems that it was originally withheld after writing, being made available only to a few pilgrims who visited Baha' Allah in Palestine. 7 Some time laiter, the sheets containing the text of the salat, together with other writings, were sent from Acre to an unspecified location in order to preserve them. 8 According to 'Abd al‑Baha', these papers later fell into the hands of his half‑brother and rival, Mirza Muhammad 'Ali.9

In the meantime, Baha' Allah himself had written a Lawki salát containing the texts of three new prayers, which were regarded as abrogating the original salat.10 The recitation of any one of these three salats was now stated to be sufficient for the observance of the obligation.'' These tliree salais differ considerably one from anottier in form and each is subject to a different regulation concerning the time of its performance.
The first is a long salat containing three sajdas and other supplicatory gestures, as in the Muslim salat. In the Laivh‑i salát, liailiai' Allaiii indicates that the long prayer is to be perforined "at whatever time and on whatever occasion that man perceives in himself a state of acquiescence and humility". 12 Questioned as to this, he replied that the prayer might be said once during each 24 hours.' 3 According to'Abd a]‑Baha', the performance of this long prayer exempts the worshipper from that of the other two salats. 14
	The second salat is a prayer of niediuiii letigtli, wittiotit all aicttiitl
rak'a, but containing a nu"iber of supplicatory gestures. It exists in two
forms, a full form and a shorter alternativ,e, which may be used at the
discretion of the worshipper. This salat is to be said three times per day,
in the morning, at noon and in the evening. 15 According to 'Abd al
Baha', it is permissible to perform the prayer before the actual rising of
the sun. 16 The form of this prayer as given in the Ad"a‑yi hadrat‑i
mal ' ibúb and the English translation in Prayers and Meditations of
Bahá'u'lláh 17 is somewhat misleading in that the two verses to be used in
the performance of ablutions are given at the beginning as if they form a
part of this prayer in particular, which is not the case. In other editions,
they have been printed separately. 18
The third prayer consists of a single verse, to be said between noon and sunset,19 preferably while standing. 2') T'wo editions of it exist ‑ an incomplete version given in the Ad"a and used for the English and subsequent translations, and the original version in the hand of the Baha*i scribe Zayn a]‑Muqarribin Najafabadi .2 1 T'his short salat may, if wished, be recited iit noon togettier with the niediuni salat, following a single ablution. 22 These three Baha'i salats, in translations by Shoghi Effendi, may be found in Appendix VIL
(ii) Witdu'. T'he performance of ritual ablutions before salat is ordained
in the Kitáb al‑aqdas: ". . . perform ablutions for the salat as a
command from God, the Single, the Powerful ‑.23 The form of these
ablutions is prescril)e(i in the Lawl ' i‑i salát, prece(iiilg the text of tile
medium prayer, aind is as follows: "Whoso wisheth to pray, let him wash
his hands, and while be washeth, let him say: Strengthen my hand, 0 my
God, that it may take hold of Thy Book with such steadfastness that 
the
hosts of the world shall have no power over it. Guard it, then, from

40

41

meddling with whatsoever doth not belong unto it. 17hou art, verily, the Almighty, the Most Powerful.
"And while washing his face, let him say: I have turned my face unto Thee, 0 my Lord! Illumine it with the light of Thy countenance. Protect it, then, from turning to anyone but nee."24
If water should be unavailable, the worshipper may instead make use of the phrase "In the name of God, the Most Pure, the Most Pure", 25 a replacement or extension of the Babi formula "In the name of God". This formula may also be used whenever the face or hands have been hurt or are painful, so that the use of water is likely to be harmful .26 'ThiS ablution does not have to precede immediately the salat for which it is intended, and may be said at any time before it during the period in
	27
which the salat may be performed. If wudu' has been carried out for
	another purpose (examples of which will be given later), it is unnecess
		28
ary to repeat it should it be the proper time for salat, butwudu'carried out in the morning, for example, is not sufficient for the afternoon salat and must be renewed for the latter .29 The ritual nature of wudu' is clear from the regulation whereby, even if someone has just washed his entire body while bathing, it remains necessary to carry out the ablution before
30
salat.
(iii) Qibla. We have seen that the Bab gave the qibla a somewhat metaphysical interpretation, ordaining it to be "he whom God shall make manifest". During the lifetime of Baha' Allah, therefore, his followers were instructed to tum to wherever he resided as the qibla, in conformity with his claim to be man yuzhiruhu '11ah. Thus, in the Aqdas, we read: "When you wish to perform the salat, turn your faces in my most holy direction, the sanctified station which God has made the point round which circles the Concourse on High, the spot unto which turn the inhabitants of the cities of eternity, and the source of command unto all in the heavens and the earth .,,31 This regulation was to be altered on his death: "and on the setting of the sun of reality and utterance, [turn your faces to] the spot we have appointed for you". 32 Similarly, in a letter to a certain Muhammad 'Ali we read: "You have asked concerning the qibla . . . while the sun is still shining above the horizon, it is and shall be acceptable to turn towards it; an arrangement has also been made for afterwards. ,33
The identity of this future qibla does not appear to have been revealed in Baha' Allah's lifetime. In both the Risála‑yi su'ál wa jawáb and another letter, he himself indicates that the decree concerning "the spot we have appointed for you" had not yet been "sent down", but that it would be made known in future. 34 According to 'Abd al‑Baha', this regulation was, in fact, later made clear by Baha' Allah in one of his "tablets" (alwáh), the qibla being designated as the tomb of Baha' Allah

himself. The same source goes on to say, however, that the tablet containing this ordinance was among a number entrusted to him by Baha' Allah before his death and stolen shortly after the event by the
35
followers of his half‑brother, Mirza Muhammad 'Ali. T'hus, until the recovery of this purloined letter, the designation of the Baha'i qibla rests on the authority of 'Abd al‑Baha', as found in a number of his letters .36 Within the terms of Baha'i belief, this is in no sense problematic, since 'Abd al‑Baha' is regarded as having been appointed by his father to interpret and expound his teachings.
(iv) Sundry regulations. Prostration (sujúdlsajda) may be performed on
anything pure 37 ‑ as we shall see in section 6, below, on ritual purity,
this, in effect, means on any clean surface whatever, since Batha' Allaih
abolished entirely the decree of impurity. Nevertheless, it is specifically
stated that certain substances, regarded as unclean in Islam, would not
make salat invalid, these being hair (al‑sha'r), bones (al‑'izái?i), aind
other things "deprived of spirit" (ttiá muni'a 'an at‑riúl ' t). Ati(i it is
permissible to wear sable (al‑saint~zúr), as well as silk (al‑khazz) and
squirrel‑skin (al‑sinjáb) .38
The sick and the aged are exempted from both salat and fasting. 39 The definition of "aged" is given in the Risdla‑yi si4'ál wa jawáb as over 70 .41' Menstruating (but not pregnant) women are also exempted from salat, in place of which they are to carry out the Babi prescription to perform wudu' and to repeat 95 times between noon and sunset: "Praise be to God, the Possessor of appearance and beauty. "41
As in the Bayán, a regulation exists for the making up of salat missed during a journey, although the Baha'i law on this matter is somewhat more elaborate than its Babi equivalent. T'he basic prescription is that, on reaching a place of security, the traveller must, in place of each salat he has missed, perform a single sajda and repeat the words "Praise be to God, the Possessor of greatness and majesty, of grace and bounty." or, if this is not possible, simply "Praiise be to God.‑ Following this, he should sit in the haykal al‑lawhid posture described previously (see p. 11) and repeat 18 times the words: "Praise be to God, the Possessor of the kingdom of earth and the kingdom of heaven .,,42 The Risála‑yi sti'ál wa jawáb clarifies certain issues left unmentioned in the Aqdas. Thus, it is specitied that the use of the sajda and the verse is only to replace salats missed during the journey, when in a place without security; in a safe place, any salat whose proper time comes round must be performed in fUll.43 A single sajda and verse must be performed for each salat missed, after which a single repetition of the 18 verses suffices for all." The above regulations also apply should a prayer be missed at
45
home.

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42

43

The Islamic injunction to keep the head of the worshipper covered while reciting scripture or performing salat is not, according to Shoghi
46
Effendi, required by Baha'i law. In the case of the long and medium
salat, where the worshipper is at one point required to sit, it is
permissible to make use of a chair, although it is regarded as preferable
47
to seat oneself on the ground for this. Following the salat, any
devotions (awrád, adhkár) taken from those written by Baha' Allah may
48
be recited as the individual wishes.
In general, it is probably true to say that the performance of salat and, in particular, of the supplementary ordinances such as wudu', is more widespread among Baha'is from an Islamic background or Baha'i families of long standing in Iran and elsewhere. Western Baha'is, for whom the concept of salat is essentially alien, seem to be less strict in its performance and, where they do carry it out, prefer to use the short prayer, which is free of prostrations and other gestures. It is, however, difficult to form a clear picture of current practice other than on the basis of personal contact.

2 Other salats, invocations, supererogatory prayers, reading of scriptural texts, and salutations
In view of the vast amount of devotional writing produced by Baha' Allah, 'Abd al‑Baha' and, to a lesser extent, Shoghi Effendi, it is extremely difficult to reduce to any reasonable compass the prayers, invocations and so forth available to Baha'is for a wide variety of circumstances. Our task is made somewhat easier, however, by the fact that the majority of Baha'i devotional texts have no ritual associations and are simply read or chanted by individuals either alone or on behalf of a group, without the performance of any definable rite.
Apart from the daily salat described above, there are other forms of prayer for special purposes in Baha'ism. Among these is the salat for the dead, identical to that prescribed in the Bayán, with one or two new subsidiary ordinances. No specific regulation seems to exist with regard to the performance of the salat prescribed by the Bab on the birth of a child, but the text of this prayer is published by Mazandarani in Amr wa
49
khalq, and it is to be assumed that it is used to some extent by Iranian and perhaps Arab Baha'is. A lengthy prayer, involving ablutions and prostrations, exists for the use of Baha'is whenever they want to pray for an important need .50 An English translation of this salat is given in Appendix VIII.
The complicated ordinances of Babism in respect of daily supererogatory invocations are almost entirely dispensed with in the Baha'i faith. The main injunction of this type is found in the Aqdas: "It has

been written down for whosoever believes in God, the Judge, thait fie
should xw,ash every day his hands and then his face, and should seat
himself facing God and utter in remembrance of God 95 times: 'God is
Most Glorious' (Allahu ablia) .‑5 1 According to the Risála‑ ' V‑i sli'ál iva
jatvi5b, tile wudu' performed for the salat will sufl'ice for this rittiail ats
well .52 it is also allowable to perform this dhikr before sut)rise, even
though the day proper (al‑yawtn) does not begin until the appearance of
the sun. 53
The Kitáb al‑aqdas also contains an injunction to read the writings of Baha' Allah morning and evening: "Recite the verses of God every morning and evening. Whosoever fails to do so has not kept faith with the covenant of God and "is bond .,,54 This same prescription is also found in a tablet apparently addressed to some Baha'is in Mainshad: "Preserve that which has been sent down front the lieaveti of my will, then read it in the evening and the morning."55 T'he choice of what verses to read is entirely that of the worshipper, the "verses of God" here being defiiied in the Rivála‑yi su'ál wa jawáb as "all that has been sent down from the kingdom of utterance". Similarly, the Babi injunction to read no fewer than 700 verses each day is abrogated in the statement of Baha' Allah that "the greatest condition is the desire and love of holy souls to recite ttic verscs. If one verse or word be reald with
, ‑6
joy and fragrance, it is better than the reading of numerous books, "'
Apart from these, there are no further obligatory (it,ájib) devotional observances. According to 'Abd al‑Baha', what has been laid down in the holy text (tizatisú.s) constitutes tiiose matters thatt are obligattory (fará'id), but other prayers and devotions are voluntary (ghaYr‑i
57
mafrúd). Aside from numerous prayers designed for use on holy days (which~ will be dealt with in the section on festivals), zi'.Y,arattiat?zas (which will be considered under pilgriiiiaiges), attid 1)rayers designed for protection or for use as amulets (which will be discussed under talismans), there are several semi‑ritual texts for other purposes, the performance of which would seem to be recommended ratfier than obligatory.
A number of prayers and invocations exist which may be used on a daily basis. Thus, in one place, Baha' Allah recommends that his followers read each day the following verses of the Our'an: "And he that fears God, God shall maike for him at pissaige out, aiiid Ile shall provide for him in a manner that he reckoned not; and he that relies upon God, God shall be a sufficiency unto him. God shall bring His cause to maturity, for He has appointed a measure for everything" (Our'an 65:2‑3). 'I'Iiis passage is, he says, "the source of graiee and bounty, and the dawning‑place of compassion. Through it, if God wills, the door that is closed shall be opened and affairs that have been delayed shall be put into motion."58 A general prayer requesting divine

44

45

assistance and protection is prescribed by Baha' Allah for recitation every morning and evening.59 A translation will be found in Appendix Ix.
'Abd al‑Baha' wrote a number of prayers which are headed with injunctions indicating that they should be read every morning, every day, or every night and day.60 These are specifically intended for Baha'i "teachers" (muballighn), especially those on journeys for the purpose of spreading the Baha'i religion, but, since "teaching" is regarded as an obligation for all Baha'is, these prayers may, in theory at least, be used as prescribed by any individual. There also exist a number of prayers by 'Abd al‑Baha' which may be used on a daily basis at mealtimes, although no specific injunctions are provided with them. Translations of these appear in Appendix X.
Numbers of prayers and tablets exist which are used by Baha'is in times of hardship or difficulty. 61 Among these a number are generally given a special status, whether by reason of repeated use or because of some special character they are supposed to possess. Shoghi Effendi writes that "These daily obligatory prayers [i.e. the three salats], together with a few other specific ones, such as the Healing Prayer, the Tablet of Ahmad, have been invested by Baha'u'llah with a special potency and significance, and should therefore be accepted as such and be recited by the believers with unquestioned faith and confidence, that through them they may enter into a much closer communion with God, and identify themselves more fully with His laws and precepts. ,62 The regular reading of these devotions at Baha'i meetings and in private imbues them with a semi‑ritual character, a character sometimes enhanced by the style of the prayers themselves.
The best‑known and most widely used of these prayers is an Arabic tablet written by Baha' Allah for Mirza Ahmad Yazdi and translated in part into English by Shoghi Effendi. The heading of the English edition printed in the British Baha'i prayer‑book states that "This Tablet has a very special power if read when in trouble or difficulty."63 The text itself contains the assurance that "Should one who is in affliction or grief read this Tablet with absolute sincerity, God will dispel his sadness, solve his difficulties and remove his afflictions. "64 The translation of this tablet is given in Appendix XI.
A short prayer attributed to the Bab, popularly known in English as the "Remover of Difficulties", is widely used by Baha'is when confronted with personal or communal problems. It reads: "Is there any Remover of difficulties save God? Say: Praised be God! He is God! All are His servants, and all abide by His bidding! ,65 This prayer is of considerable interest in that, although devoid of any ritual significance in itself, it has generally come to be used by Baha'is in a ritualistic manner. It is not uncommon at Baha'i gatherings for there to be a

"round of Removers of Difficulties" (when each person present in turn recites the prayer) or to have it read a total of 9, 19, 45 or 95 times (all figures which have a significance in Baha'ism, but which have no particular relationship to the prayer in question).
Some years ago, a practice was begun whereby groups of Baha'is or individuals would recite the "Remover of Difficulties" 5W times. This ritual was based on a statement attributed to Baha' Allah, in which, addressing the Babis at the time of his exile to Baghdad, he says: "Bid them recite: 'Is there any Remover of difficulties save God? Say: Praised be God! fie is God! All aire Ilis servants, ind all abide by llis bidding!' Tell them to repeat it 500 times, nay, 1000 times, by day and night, sleeping and waking, that haply the Countenance of Glory may be unveiled to their eyes, and tiers of light descend upon them."66 Although it is clear that this is neither addressed to the Baha'is nor intended in any but a hyperbolic sense (and is, in any case, devoid of the scriptural authority which is essential for the acceptance of observances in the Baha'i faith), the belief that it constitutes a positive prescription to be universally followed was, and in some areas may still be, given considerable prominence. It is an extremely interesting example of the growth of popular ritual observance within a movement devoted to the principle of accepting only authoritative prescriptions in respect of devotional practice.
A number of prayers exist which are designed to be read before
67	68 	69
sleep, on waking in the Morning, on leaving one's home, and on leaving a city. 70 T'here is a prayer to be said after disturbed dreams (or, indeed, on waking generally) ‑ the translation of this is to be found in Appendix X11 ‑and another for the purpose of requesting that God reveal matters to the worshipper in his sleep (in Appendix XIII). The present writer possesses two English texts prescribing similar rituals, the performance of which will lead to dreams of a visionary nature; unfortunately, no Persian or Arabic text has ever been found by him to correspond to these, and they are included in Appendix XIV with the proviso tliatt they maty be utiaiuttieiitic. 'I'liey are of particular ititerest in view of their high ritual cotitent.
For those who seek to have a child, there exists a prayer by Baha' Allah in which God is asked to bless the worshipper with offspring. The translation of this prayer may be found in Appendix XV.
A number of tablets and prayers exist which have a ritual quality less by reason of their content or manner of use than because of the style in which they are written, containing repeating phrases or choruses or recurring passages in which small variations occur. The best‑known of these in the West is the "Tablet of the Holy Mariner" (Lawh malláh alquds), one of two tablets of the same name, this being in Arabic, the other in Persian. T'he Arabic "Tablet of the Holy Mariner" contains

46

47

I
throughout the refrain "Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious' , except after the last three lines, when it changes to "Glorified be our Lord, the Most High". A translation by Shoghi Effendi appe'
Appendix XVI. A short prayer found in the Ad"a contains for several lines the refrain "0 Thou, no God is there but Thee" ‑ the translation appears in Appendix XVII. In the same compilation there is a text similar in many respects to the "Tablet of the Holy Mariner", in which a varying refrain is used, with usually a single word changing in each line ‑ the translation appears in Appendix XVIII. Extremely popular in the East and to a lesser extent in the West, where until recently only an "unofficial" translation was available in English, is a devotion known in Arabic as Qad ihtaraqa 'I‑mukhlisún and in English as "The Fire Tablet" ;71 although this tablet does not contain a refrain as such, its phrasing is that of variation on a fixed pattern, particularly noticeable in the original, which is written in rhyming prose. The semi‑ritual use of this tablet is based on the statement in the last verse that "Should my servants one and all read it and meditate upon it, there shall be ignited in every vein of their bodies a conflagration that shall set ablaze the worlds." A fresh translation may be found in Appendix XIX.
Apart from the daily repetition of Allahu abha and one or two other invocations noted earlier, a number of others are in use among Baha'is. The Islamic salat which is to be said on the occasion of natural wonders such as earthquakes, eclipses or floods, is abrogated by Baha' Allah. In its place, believers may (but are not obliged to) say the following verse: "Greatness belongs to God, Lord of the seen and the unseen, Lord of the worlds."72 Beyond this, no other authorized invocatory rituals are known to the present writer, although there are a number which have become fairly widespread despite their not being formally prescribed. These include communal and private recitals of phrases such as Allahu abha (God is the most glorious), ya bahá'al‑abhá (0 Thou glory of the most glorious), ya bahyu 'I‑abhá (a variant of the preceding), and ya '11áhu 'I‑mustagháth (0 God, the Invoked), usually in set cycles of 9, 19, 45, or 95 times, much in the manner of Islamic dhikr. The use of a subha or rosary to assist in counting these adhkar is entirely optional but is not widespread, especially in the West. A Baha'i rosary resembles its Islamic counterpart, but has groups of beads arranged on the basis of the figures mentioned above, 95 in all.
The Babi form of salutation (Allahu akbar and Allahu a'zam for men, Allahu abha and Allahu ajmal for women) is permissible for Baha'is, according to a statement by 'Abd al‑Baha'. Nevertheless, he stresses that the use of Allahu abha alone is the proper Baha'i greeting. 73 This latter greeting was instituted by Baha' Allah himself during the period of his exile in Edirne, 74 and is today in universal use by Baha'is, 75
although its public employment in the West is not recommended.

The Islamic practice of speaking or Writing itie plirises "Nlaty ilie mercy of God be on him" (rahmat Alláli 'alayhi) or "May God forgive him [his sins]" (ghafara '11áh lahu) after the mention of a deceased person or the phrase "May God be well pleased with him" (radiya '11áh lanhu) after the mention of a living person of importance, is replaced by the phrase "Upon him be the most glorious glory of God" ('alayhi Ballá' Allálii'l‑abhá) or simply "Upon him be the glory of God" ('alayhi Balzá'
76
A llált). It is also normal when writing in Persian or Arabic to replace
the Islamic salá '11ált 'alayhi wa sallanta (May God bless him and grant
him salvation) and its equivaletits (used after the names of the Prophet
and the Imams) with numerous honorific formulae such as jalla jaláluhu
(giorified be his majesty), jalla sultánuhu (glorified be his sovereignty),
jalla thariá'lihu (glorified be his praise), and jalla istnuhu 'I‑a'lá (glorified
be his most exalted name) after the names of the Bab, Balia' Allah,
'Abd al‑Baha'or Shoghi Effendi, with certain formulae reserved for one
or the other but no single fixed form for any one. When quoting texts
from the writings of any of these figures, it is normal to precede them
with one of a number of formulae, such as: qaw1uhu ta'áIá (his word,
exalted be he), qaw1uhu 'I‑a'lá (his most exalted word), qaw1uhu 'l‑ahlá
(his most sweet word), or qawhihu 'I‑'azz (his mighty word). In general,
Persian Baha'i writing is remarkable for its widespread use of honorifics
and deferential turns of phrase; Baha' Allah is, for example, referred to
as I I zadrat‑i Baliá' Alláh (his holiness, Baha' Allah), Janiál‑i qidanz (the
ancient Beauty), Janiál‑i abhá (the most glorious Beauty), or Jat?iál‑i
mtibárak (the blessed Beauty); the Batb is almost invariably termed
hadrat‑i a'lá (his holiness, the most exalted) and occasionally hiadral‑i
nuqta (his holiness, the Point); 'Abd al‑Baha' is known as hadrat‑i 'Abd
al‑Balzá', hadrat‑i rnarkaz‑i r?t'tháq (his holiness, the Centre of the
Covenant), or hadral‑i t?iaK,lái 'l‑it,ará (his holiness, the Lord of
Creation); Shogh*i Effendi is almost always spoken of as hadrat‑i it,al‑y,i
arnr Alláii (his holiness, the Guardian of the cause of God). In keeping
with conventional Persian usage, the verb farmúdan (to command) is
invariably used in the plural, either atbsolutely in plaice of gul'tan (to
say), or as an auxiliary in phrases such as taslirf farmlúdan for taslirf
ávardan, itself for ámadan (to come), názil fariiiiúdan for názil kardan
(to send down, reveal), and so forth. Sharaf.Stidúr yáftan (to find the
honour of being issued) is commonly used for siidrúr yáiftaii in respect of
letters, while tiblets are normally revealed bi‑ifliklzár‑iftiláti (in honour
of so and so). Some writers use even more complex phraseology, such ais
stating that a quotation from scripture "will give adornment to these
pages" (znat‑baklish‑i 'n awráq nigardad). So standard liats the use of
terminology of this type become that the more common formulae have
acquired a decidedly ritualistic character; it would be unthinkable not to
use honorifics with the names of the central Baha'i figures or to use non

[graphic]

[graphic]

48

49

deferential verb forms. It is probably true to say that, contrary to what one might expect, Baha'i writing in Persian is one of the few remaining strongholds of stereotyped, old‑fashioned phraseology, a fact that increases its ritualistic character (much as out‑dated Christian prayerbooks or translations of the Bible convey a greater sense of ritual to many people than their modern counterparts).

3 Talismans and rings The use of hayakil (but not, it seems, dawa'ir) appears to have
77
continued for a time at least during the early Baha'i period, but Baha' Allah provided no definite prescription for their preparation or use, and the practice seems to have died a natural death. Nevertheless, there exist a number of prayers the purpose of which is to provide talismanic protection to the reader or wearer or, in some cases, to others less directly associated with them. One of these, by Baha' Allah, contains the "greatest name" symbol which we have seen used in earlier Babi dawa'ir. Another (number 4 in Appendix XX) ends with an address to the rising sun similar to that found in the Bayán. Examples of five such talismans by Baha' Allah and another by 'Abd al‑Baha' are given in Appendix Y_X.
The carrying of amulets and prayers or the dissolving in water of the t1greatest name" (in its Baha'i form ‑ see below) are recommended by 'Abd al‑Baha' as a cure for illness: "The carrying of an amulet or a prayer, or else the dissolving in water of the greatest name written down, and the drinking [of this water] for the alleviation of illness ‑ if these two actions be performed with absolute devotion, with a pure heart and pure intention and with attraction of the spirit, their effect shall be powerful indeed. ,78 Wide use is made of a lengthy prayer, known in Arabic by its opening words as Anta 'I‑Káft‑ and in English simply as "The Long Healing Prayer" or "The Healing Prayer". Although primarily used as a prayer for healing, this is, in fact, intended for use as a talisman, as is clear from a passage towards the end which reads: ". . . protect the bearer of this blessed paper, and whosoever reads it, and whosoever comes upon it, and whosoever passes about the house in which it is kept. Heal, then, through it, every sick and feeble and impoverished one from all afflictions, adversities, calamities, and griefs. And guide through it whomsoever wishes to enter the paths of Thy guidance and the highways of Thy grace and forgiveness. ,79 The ritual effect of this prayer is achieved above all by its superbly incantatory style, in which short rhyming, rhythmical verses, which change only three 'Words at a time, are interspersed with a repeated chorus line, itself incorporating both rhyme and rhythm. The talismanic effect is enhanced here particularly by the manner in which God is invoked, as in Islam, by a string of names ‑ except that, in this case,

many of tlle iiaimes simply do not exist in Arabic or liaive meainiiigs ostensibly inapplicable to the divinity. By thus matking use ‑ in the manner of the Bab in the Kitáb al‑as??iá' or the Shii'ún‑i khainsa ‑ of names formed on theoretically possible Arabic patterns, the mystical, one might say magical, effect is increased dramatically, a fact conceatied by translation. In Appendix XXI, I have provided a literal translation of the opening verses, using transliterated forms for the divine names in order to convey something of the incantatory flavour of the original.
Although the use of mystical devices incorporating geometrical patterns and calligraphy, such as hayakil and dawa'ir, was soon abandoned in Baha'ism, two closely related symbols came to be adopted for the use of adherents. These are known respectively as the "greatest name" (al‑isin al‑a'zam, isin‑i a'zam) and the "ringstone symbol" (itig'ii‑i isin‑i a'zain ringstotie of the greattest name). The former consists of the following arrangement of the Arabic words (y,a baha' alabha (0 glory of the most glorious).

The use of elaborate calligraphic patterns of this type, incorporating the names of God, the Prophet or (in Shi'ism) the Imams, is common in Islam. The present symbol is, however, regarded as unusually holy by Baha'is, who are supposed to hang it in the central place in a room and to treat it with the utmost reverence, in that it is an invocation of God by
, 80
his "greatest name", Bahá .
Although now generally found in the form of a framed print hung on a wall, this device was commonly used in the past on book covers aind maty occasionally be seen on pendants, badges or other forms of personail jewellery, although indiscriminate use of this kind is officially disapproved.
The ringstone symbol consists of the following pattern:

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[graphic]

[graphic]

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This device was designed by 'Abd at‑Baha'81 for use on ringstones, although it is frequently found nowadays on other forms of jewellery. It incorporates the two principal letters of the name Baha', the ba' and the ha' the first repeated twice, the second four times, together with two five‑pointed stars. 'Abd al‑Baha' himself explains in detail the esoteric significance of this symbol and its relationship to various aspects of Baha'i doctrine; the letter in which this explanation is given appears as Appendix XXII.
Both the "greatest name" and the "ringstone symbol" derive their inspiration to some degree from the concept and form of the 11 greatest name" as conceived in Shi'ism. In brief, there are several traditions which state that, of the divine names, one exists which may be termed the "greatest name of God"; Shi'i traditions claim that this name is in the keeping of the hidden Imam and will be revealed by him when he returns. In one Shi'i tradition attributed to the Imam 'Ali, the greatest name is given in cryptic fashion in the device already reproduced (see p.23). Alternatively, the following form is sometimes found:

Other variations on this device exist, as we have noted earlier. There is also a curious form of the greatest name as follows:

Baha'i interpretation emphasizes the use of the letter ha' in these
	82
devices and argues that the greatest name is, in fact, Baha'. The waw
with its tail stretching backwards over the other elements of these
devices is given a complex interpretation based on a letter of Shaykh
Ahmad al‑Ahsa'i, discussed in Appendix XXIII.
The five‑pointed star found in the Islamic greatest name (and elsewhere), in the form of the Babi hayakil, and on either side of the Baha'i ringstone symbol is, according to Shoghi Effendi, the proper symbol of the Baha'i religion. Much more widely used, however, is a nine‑pointed star, which may be found on Baha'i jewellery and publications, and even in the landscaping around Baha'i temples. This latter symbol is, nevertheless, according to Shoghi Effendi, not "part of the teachings" of the Baha'i faith, but is "only used as an emblem representing 9, ,.83 The number nine itself "is considered by the Baha'is as sacred",84 representing as it does both the number of

perfection (as the highest unit) and the numerical equivalent of the name Baha'. The nine‑pointed star is used on the headstones of Baha'i graves, in lieu of the greatest name symbol, which is regarded as too sacred for this purpose. 85

4 Faisting (sawin, si ' 
y,a?ti)
The Babi fast of 19 days during the month of A'la', the laist month of the
year, is retained by Baha' Allah. He states that "the fast of the Ba ' Y,áIl
has been accepted by the All‑Merciful, aind its injunction has been sent
down in the Kitáb al‑aqdas". 86 In the Aqdas itself, the period of the fast
is partly indicated as follows: "We have written down for you the fast for
a limited number of days, and we have made Naw‑Ruz a festival for you
on its completion."87 T'lie number of datys is fixed precisely at 19 by
88
Baha' Allah. In a letter to Haji Kazim Nassaij, Baha' Allaiii explicitly ordains the month of A'la' as that of the fast: "Fasting has been written down for you in the month of A'la'."89
	As in Islam and Batbism, faistitig is ordatined from sunrise (al‑iiillú') to
sunset (al‑tiftúl), but abstinence is from food and drink only (( ‑ sexual
intereourse is not mentioned. Smoking, however, is regarded by 'Abd
at‑Baha' as drink (az jumla‑yi "iashrúbát).91 Together with salat, fasting
		92
is obligatory from the age of maturity, 15. As with salat, faisting is not
to be given a spiritual interpretation which would urge aigainst its literal
	93
performance (as was argued by some Sufis in Islam).
In the Kitáb al‑aqdas, various individuals are exempted from fasting, these being travellers, the sick and women who are pregnant, nursing, or menstruating.94 As in the case of salat, menstruating women are to perform ivudu' and to repeat 95 times each day "Praise be to God, the Possessor of appearance and beauty". T'he upper age limit for faisting is lower thain in Islaiiii (,A,Iiicii is "tlie extrciiiity of old ~ige"), hilt Ili_gller than in Babism (where it is fixed at 42), being set at 70.95 According to Shoghi Effendi, this latter exemption applies to all those who have reached the age of 70 and not only to those whose physical strength is impaired .96 Persoiis ciigaiged in lieatvy work (ivltgliát‑i vliáqqa) atre ailso exempted, but are to be circuiiispect during the time of fasting, in order to show respect for the law. 97
The regulations concerning the exemption for travellers are somewhat complex. The minimum period of travel is nine hours or two hours on foot.98 If the traveller breaks his journey, he remains exempt from the fast, provided his proposed stay at his halting‑place is less than one month; if he proposes to stay for at least 19 days, he must fast. Should he arrive in the iiiiddle of the fasting motitli at ai plaice att %%,Iiich lie proposes to stay 19 days, he may remain exempt for three days before resuming the fast. If he reaches his permanent home during the fast, he must commence fasting on the day of his arrival.99 If the festivals of the

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52
53

births of the Bab and Baha' Allah or the declaration of the Bab (which are celebrated in the East according to the lunar calendar ‑ see section on festivals below, p. 63) fall during the fast, then all are exempt on those days.100
It is permissible to vow to fast in another month than A'la' (in the hope of having a personal need fulfilled, for example), but this practice is not recommended, it being regarded as preferable to make vows to perform actions which will be of benefit to others.101 There appears to be no regulation, as in Islam, for making up a fast which has been missed through illness or for a similar cause.
Numerous prayers and devotional passages exist for use during the fast. 102 Of particular note is a lengthy devotion designed for use on rising before dawn and which contains a refrain coupled with a regular stylistic pattern in the verses, giving it a highly ritualistic appearance similar to that of several of the prayers we have discussed before.103

5 Pilgrimage (hajj and ziyara)
Hajj is ordained by Baha' Allah in the Kiláb al‑aqdas as follows: "God has decreed for those among you who are able pilgrimage unto the House, with the exception of women; God has exempted them as a mercy on His part."104 Elsewhere in the Aqdas, the injunction is given to "raise up the two Houses in the two places",105 but the identity of these houses is not made clear. In the Risála‑yi su'ál wa jawáb, in reply to the question "concerning the hajj", it is stated that "one of the two houses is obligatory; otherwise it depends on the preference of the individual who sets off on the hajj".106 This was still unclear and the question was repeated; this time an unequivocal answer was given: "The hajj to the House, which is for men, refers to the Most Great House in Baghdad and the House of the Point in Shiraz. Whichever one the hafi is made to, it is sufficient. The one nearest to any given country should be visited by the people of that country." 107 The Baha'i hajj, then, is a clear development of Babi pilgrimage, retaining the house of the Bab in Shiraz as a hajj centre and adding the house of Baha' Allah in Baghdad as a second bayt. The introduction of two places to which hajj may be performed is highly innovative.
While in Edirne, Baha' Allah wrote a number of tablets containing details of the rites of the hajj,108 but initially only one of these was actually made available. This was the Súra al‑hajj, addressed to Mirza Muhammad Nabil‑i Zarandi.109 It contains detailed instructions as to the rites to be performed in the course of the hajj to the house of the Bab in Shiraz, and calls on Zarandi to perform the pilgrimage on behalf of Baha' Allah, which he did shortly afterwards.110 The rites to be performed are fairly complex, although less so than those of the Islamic hajj. On reaching a spot from which he can see the city, the pilgrim is to

dismount and recite certain verses; he is then to raise his hands and repeat a lengthier passage. After this, he is to ride on until he is about 2000 paces from the city. Here he is to dismount again and immerse himself in water. On emerging, he is to trim his moustache, clip his nails, shave his head, apply perfumes and put on the best clothes he can afford. (The regulation concerning the shaving of the head, which occurs in the Islamic hajj, was later regarded as abrogated by the ruling in the Kitáb al‑aqdas that men are not to shave their heads.)"' He is then to turn towards the house, raise his hands, and repeat another series of verses. On completing this, he is to lower his hands to the level of his cheeks, recite Allahu akbar nine times, raise his hands again, and recite another passage. On lowering his hands, he is to walk towairds the city, uttering the phrases la daha illa '11ah, Allahu akbar, Allahil aqdas, and Allahu amjad. He is then to repeat the formula "Here am 1, 0 my God, here am 1; greetings unto Thee, and the light be before Thee" as often as he wishes without cooling his enthusiasm. On reaching a spot 20 paces from the city gate, he is to stop, repeat the phrase Allahu akbar 19 times, and then address the city with another series of verses. lie must then walk to the city gate, where he is to prostrate himself. After kissing the dust, he is to raise his head, then stand and repeat Allallu akbar a further 19 times. He should then walk until he reaches the house, at which point he is to stop and repeat further verses. On their completion, he should prostrate himself, then place his right cheek on the ground and repeat more verses. He is then to stand and turn to the right of the house, raise his hands, and recite another passage. Having done this, he is to circumambulate the house seven times (a difficult process in view of the position of the house within a complex of alleyways and other houses). While performing the circurnambulations, he is to mention the name of God and, on their completion, to enter the first portico, in front of the door of the sanctuary (this possibly refers to the short passageway at the foot of the stairs leading to the Bab's room, accessible through the original entrance to the house). Standing there, he is to raise his hainds and repeat a lengthy passage. At this point, tile pilgrimage ends. T'he full text of the portion of this documeiit giving the rites of the Shiraz hajj is given in translation in Appendix XXIV.
Baha' Allah notes in the Siúra al‑hajj that he wishes someone from every city to perform this pilgrimage on his behalf, but, in the event, Zarandi is, to this day, the only person to have done so. The particular difficulties inherent for even small numbers of people in performing such a pilgrimage in the faee of Muslim hostility in Irain were and are insuperable. In a letter to Aqa Mirza Aqa Afnan, 112 then in Port Satid, 'Abd al‑Baha' expressed concern lest even a simple ziyara (as distinct from the hajj) should fall into neglect and asked him to make preparations so that some individuals could go from time to time and at

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least perform the ordinary ziyara. Baha'is living in Shiraz were to make a ziyara to the house at least once a month. 113
The house itself underwent serious vicissitudes over the years. Following the Bab's martyrdom in 1850, his wife and mother, who had lived in the house until then, moved out. Badly looked after by its new tenant, a non‑Babi called Mirza Husayn, it gradually fell into ruin until, some years later, Aqa Mirza Aqa Afnan brought a succession of Baha'i tenants to live there. During this period, however, a number of earthquakes caused structural damage. With the approval of Baha' Allah, the Bab's wife in 1289/1872‑3 instructed Aqa Mirza Aqa to carry out repairs which altered the original structure and in 1290/1873‑4, she herself moved back into the house until her death at the end of 1299/ 1882. In 1302/1884‑5, Baha' Allah entrusted the perpetual keeping of the house to the Bab's late wife, her sister, and the latter's children. Zuhra Bigum, the sister of the Bab's wife, moved into the house and remained there unlil her death in 1307/1890. On his arrival in Shiraz to take up custodianship of the house in 1321/1903, Aqa Mirza Aqa Afnan carried out fresh repairs which restored it to its original condition. 114 In later years, Shoghi Effendi placed considerable emphasis on the imperative need to preserve the house of the Bab in its pristine form, particularly in respect of the main walls. This even extended to a rigorous prohibition of the illumination of the house by electricity. Emphasis was also laid on the need to preserve the room in which the Bab made his initial claim to Mulla Husayn Bushru'i as particularly sacred. 115 Further repairs were necessitated following damage sustained in the course of an attack on the house by a Muslim mob in 1955. For the present writer, who had visited the house on numerous occasions and who has benefited over the years from the friendship of Abu 'I‑Qasim Afnan, its custodian, it is painful in the extreme to have to record that, in 1979, the house was razed to the ground and the site bulldozed.
Some time after Zarandi had completed the pilgrimage to Shiraz, a second Súira al‑hajj was written, contained in a lengthy letter to him. 116 He was now instructed to perform the hajj to the house of Baha' Allah in Baghdad, in accordance with the directions set out in the tablet; this he did shortly afterwards. 117 Somewhat shorter than the text containing the Shiraz rites, this second Súra al‑hajj is otherwise similar in most respects to it. On entering Baghdad, the pilgrim is to advance towards the Tigris, repeating the phrase Allahu akbar. When he reaches the river, he is to put on his best clothes and perform ablutions, using verses provided for recitation during the washing of hands and face. He is then to cross over the bridge, reciting the phrase Allahu akbar; at the end of the bridge he must turn to face in the direction of the house and, on the first step he takes, he is to recite a series of verses. When he has read these, he is to say Allahu abha and then to begin the circurnambulation

of the house, which is to be performed seven times. On coiiipletion of this, he is to stand at the door of the house and beg forgiveness from God 70 times (presumably by use of the phrase astaghfiru '11áh), then repeat a passage in which divine forgiveness is sought. He is then to advance towairds the door of the house, repeating Allahu ablia; at the door he is to stand and repeat further verses. He must then address the house, its land, its wall and all upon it, using a lengthy passage. He should then prostrate himself and pray to God, using a prayer provided. He is then to raise his head and seek diviiie forgivetiess, reciting another invocation. Having done this, he is to enter the house until lie reaclies the courtyard and stands before what is termed a qibla (the meaning is unclear: this may refer to a spot on which Baha' Allah frequently sat). There he is to raise his arms and to repeat another series of verses, which include what amounts to a Baha'i testiniony of faith. After this another passage is to be recited. Having completed this, he is to remain silent and to listen for the "call of God"; if he hears it and inhales the "fragrance of God", he maiy be assured ttiat God liais forgiven him liis sins. Otherwise, he is to repeat the rites of the hajj. According to 'Abd al‑Baha', hearing the "call of God" is to be interpreted in spiritual terms. 118 The text of the relevant portion of the letter to Zarandi is provided in translation in Appendix XXV,
A ziyaratnama exists for use att the Baghdad house; written in Acre, this was also addressed to Zarandi. It does not contain any direetions for rites to be performed at the house, but is simply a tablet to be read there by pilgrims. Part of it has been translated into English by Shoghi Effe ndi. " 9
As in the case of the Shiraz house, Zarandi has, to date, been the only person to perform the Baha'i hajj to the house of Baha' Allath in Baghdad. I'he house itself wats bought front the originail owtier in the time of Baha' Allah, although there were several disputes over it in later years, instigated by relatives of the first owner. During ttie period of the First World War the house was badly dainiaiged, but it was latter repiired by Hajj Malimud Qassabchi, who entirely rebuilt it. From this time, Baha'is began to perform ziyara to the house in sufficiently large numbers to excite the animosity of the Shi'i population of Baghdad. 120 In 1920 the house was seized by the Shi'is and soon became the centre of a bitter and protracted process of litigation which reached as far as the League of Nations. Although the League found unequivocally in favour of the Baha'is, the house, which had been turned into a HliL5a y,iii*),y,a ‑ a building set apart for reciting eulogies of the Imam Husayn ‑ was never, in the end, restored to them and reiiiatins to this daty in tioriBaha'i hands. 121
With the death of Baha' Allah in 1892, his tomb at Bahji near Acre was designated by 'Abd al‑Baha' as a place of ziyara ranking in

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importance with the houses in Shiraz and Baghdad. In one letter, he wfites that "there is no obligation for everyone to visit such places [holy sites in general], other than the three, namely: the Most Holy Shrine, the Blessed House in Baghdad and the venerated House of the Bab in Shiraz. To visit these is obligatory if one can afford it and is able to do so, and if no obstacle stands in one's way . . . These three Holy Places are consecrated to pilgrimage." 122 It should, however, be made clear that what 'Abd al‑Baha' is here referring to is ziyara; hajj as such, with its connected rites, may only be performed to the two houses, even though this cannot be doiie in practice. 'Abd al‑Baha"s statement is interesting in that it permits ziyara as well as hajj to the houses, and introduces as an obligatory practice ziyara to the shfine of Baha' Allah.
The tomb of Baha' Allah as such was, as we have noted, designated as the qibla of the Baha'i world and is regarded by Baha'is as the most holy spot on earth. In this respect, its importance as a focus for pilgrimage far outweighs in the minds of most Baha'is that of the Shiraz and Baghdad houses. The area around the tomb itself is termed, in an echo of the sacred enclosure at Mecca, the haram, and considerable emphasis was placed by Shoghi Effendi on the ritual "cleansing" of this region by the expulsion from it of renegade members of the family of Baha' Allah, termed "Coven ant‑B reakers" (náqidún). 123 In later years, the very houses in which these individuals had lived were demolished and their sites razed. The haram area has been widely landscaped, the shrine now standing at the centre of a vast circle of gardens, with paths converging on it. The original mansion of Bahji, in which Baha' Allah lived for some 20 years, stands to the side of the shrine proper.
In 1899, the remains of the Bab, which had been moved from place to place secretly from the time of his execution in 1850, arrived in Palestine. Ten years later, on 21 March 1909, they were placed by 'Abd a]‑Baha' in a shrine built by him on Mount Carmel, overlooking the port of Haifa.' 24 Baha' Allah had previously indicated in the Kitáb al‑aqdas that houses should be raised up in places "wherein the Throne of your Lord, the Merciful, hath been established". 125 This was a reference to locations in which either he or the Bab (the "I'hrones" upon which God was manifested) had stayed, however briefly, as well as to the places in which the remains of the Bab had been kept on their long journey to Palestine. Now that these remains had been given a permanent restingplace, 'Abd al‑Baha' designated the shrine of the Bab, which was termed the maqám‑i a1d, "the most exalted spot", as a place of Baha'i pilgrimage. He thus writes in a letter to Aqa Mirza Husayn Burujirdi and Hajj Abu 'I‑Qasim Dabbagh that "the basis of pilgrimage (ziyaral) is the blessed garden (rawda‑yi mub,áraka ‑ the shrine of Baha' Allah) and the most exalted spot (maqam‑i a7a). It is necessary to set out for
,,126 these two places.

On his death in 1921, 'Abd al‑Balia' himself was btirie(i in ttie sliritie, in a room adjacent to that in which the remains of the Baib haid been deposited. In later years ttie original structure, a rough stone building, was added to by Shoghi Effendi and in 1953 a superstructure, topped by a gold‑tiled dome, was completed utider his direction. 'I‑he areal alround the shrine was extensively landscaped and its importance as a pilgrimage centre considerably enhanced by the re‑burial in its vicinity of the remains of the wife, daughter and younger son of Baha' Allath. The sector around these latter graves wais designatted aiii airc on wliicii the administrative institutions of the Baha'i World Ceiitre in liailat were to be grouped. In 1957, an "International Baha'i Archives" building NW,as completed, and work was recently completed on a structure termed the "Seat of the Universal House of Justice". 127
Although the shrine of Baha' Allah remains the central focus of Baha'i pilgrimage, the shrine of the Bab has come to be endowed with considerable significance for Baha'is. Curiously enough, in view of the position of the shrine of Baha' Allah as the Baha'i qibla, Shoghi Effendi portrays the shrine of the Bab as the centre of the world. He speaks of nine concentric circles, the outermost being "the entire planet", the next the "Most Holy Land", then Mount Carmel, then the precincts of the Bab's sepulchre, then "tlie most holy court" (the gardens and terraces immediately round the shrine), then the 13aib's mausoleum, then the chambers of the tomb itself, then the vault in which the Bab is laid, and finally the sarcophagus containing the Bab's dust. 121,
Baha'i pilgrims liaid, in fact, been going to the Holy Land from the time of Baha' Allah's arrival there in 1868. Various conditions were established for intending pilgrims, and it was necessary to obtain permission to visit Palestine. 12' Following the death of Baha' Allah, pilgrims, soon including Americans and Europeans, continued to travel to Palestine, the main purpose of their visit being to meet 'Abd ak Baha'. Both Western and Eastern pilgrimage accounts concentrate oil encounters with 'Abd al‑Batha', his tatble‑tailk ain(i his persoiiility. It is in these eatrly pilgriiiiaiges to ai pci‑soii raillicr than at placc that \~c can observe the genesis of what has since become the main Baha'i pilgrimage, now involving large numbers of individuals from many parts of the world, but still predominantly Iranians, Americans and Europeans.
In its present form, Baha'i pilgrimage to Israel ‑ which is, in practice, the only pilgrimage known to Western Baha'is, the vast majority of whom are utterly unaware of the distinction between hajj and ziyara ‑ takes place at any time of the year (excluding the summer), being arranged for groups of varying sizes over a nine‑daly period. During their stay at the Baha'i World Centre, pilgrims visit the shrines of the Bab and Baha' Allah, are shown Baha'i relics at the Archives building, and perform ziyara to numbers of other sites

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connected with Baha' Allah and 'Abd al‑Baha', including Baha' Allah's prison‑cell and the house of 'Abbud in Acre, the farm of Mazra'a, and the mansion of Bahji. Two focal experiences are regafded as crowning the pilgrimage ‑ ziyara to the shrine of Baha' Allah itself, usually involving prostration at the threshold of an inn~r room in which the prophet is buried, and the unveiling to pilgrims of a photograph and some drawings of Baha' Allah and a drawing of the Bab, in the course of the visit to the Archives. Visits to the shrine of the Bab tend to be less formalized, and pilgrims are permitted to visit the shrine and that of 'Abd al‑Baha' singly or in groups at any time of the afternoon or evening. There is virtually no ritual involved and care is taken to prevent its development. Iranian pilgrims still tend to follow Shi'i patterns in their manner of performing the ziyara, kissing the lintels and thresholds of the entrances to the various shrines, touching walls, carpets and other objects within the shrines, and occasionally introducing boxes of confectionery to receive baraka (the confectionery later being given to the sick for its supposed curative powers). A ziyaralnama, compiled on the instructions of 'Abd al‑Baha' by Mirza Muhammad Nabil‑i Zarandi, is used by pilgrims at both the shrine of Baha' Allah and that of the Bab, and another, originally a prayer written by 'Abd al‑Baha' himself, is used at his shrine. 130 At the shrine of Baha' Allah, use of the ziyarainama takes precedence over all other prayers, but the recitation of other devotions is none the less permissible. 131
We have already noted that Baha' Allah enjoined the building of houses at places where he or the Bab had been. Such sites are numerous, and numbers of them have been acquired by the Baha'is in Iran and Turkey, where they are places of local pilgrimage. Most notable is the house in Tehran in which Baha' Allah was born, which is an important centre of ziyara, both for Iranian Baha'is and for others visiting the country. The Siyah Chal, the Tehran dungeon in which Baha' Allah was imprisoned for four months in 1852‑3, and where he is said to have first received divine revelation, was acquired some years ago by the Baha'is, but the situation in Iran has not permitted its being opened to pilgrims. Other shrines exist throughout Iran, some in the hands of the Baha'is, many others owned by individual Muslims or the state. These latter include the fort of Shaykh Tabarsi, where Mulla Husayn Bushru'i and other Letters of the Living are buried, the castles of Maku and Chihriq, where the Bab was imprisoned, the citadel of Tabriz, where he was incarcerated briefly, and the house of the Imam Jum'a there, where he was bastinadoed (and which, as we have seen, he designated as a centre of pilgrimage). The site of the Bab's martyrdom, a particularly holy spot for Baha'is, has undergone serious vicissitudes over the years and no longer exists in a form at all resembling its state in 1850. Of importance also are the shrine of Quddus in Babul, the

"Babiyya" house in Mashhaid, and the residence of Bahai' Allah in Takur. T'lirougliout the country ttiere exist graves of various Babi and Baha'i martyrs, most of which are regarded as places of ziyara. According to 'Abd a]‑Baha', "every illumined grave, whether of a martyr or not, belonging to a believer, in whattever country it may be, must be treated with the utmost respect; to visit such a grave is the cause of spirituality and the illumination of hearts. ,132 Innumerable ziyaratnainas were written by Baha' Allah and 'Abd al‑Baha', designed to be read at the graves of eminent individuals or martyrs or groups of martyrs. Following the Iranian Revolution and the recrudescence of religious animus devoid of checks there, the fate of the hundreds of Baha'i holy places in Iran seems bleak.
Outside Iran, Turkey and Israel, there exist a number of Baliai'i shrines connected with tiie journeys of 'Abd al‑Baha' to the West. In London, the resting‑place of Shoghi Effendi in the Great North London Cemetery attracts regular pilgrims from both Britain and abroad, and many American Baha'is in particular, travelling to Israel for the purpose of pilgrimage, make a point of stopping off in London in order to visit the grave.

6 Ritual purity and impurity
Little needs to be said on this topic. In the Kitáb al‑aqdas, Bahat' Allah writes: "God has lifted the decree of uncleanness from all things and from other religions (indal likhrá) . . . All things were immersed in the ocean of purity on the first idatyl of RidwAn . More specifically, as we have noted in the section on salat, 6 removes the decree of impurity from hair, bones or other things "deprived of spirit" (this in respect of prayer), sable, silk and squirrel‑skin. As in Babism, the use of gold and silver vessels and utensils is perniitted. 134 Liquid semen is also regairded as pure. 135 General cleanliness is strongly enjoined. Anything %w,hich is repellent (niakriúh) is to be cleaned with water which has not changed in
136
colour, taste or smell.

7 Rites of birth, death and marriage
The Babi salat to be used on the birth of a child is neither specifically retained iior abrogated by Baha' Allah, but it is printed by Faidii‑i Mazandarani in Amr wa khalq, 137 and it is possible that it is in use to some extent in Iran. Circumcision is not considered obligatory. 138 'Abd al‑Baiha' recommends the holding of meetings for the purpose of ii~iiiiitig children, at which prayers and supplications for the future guidance of
the child aire to be read. 139 Baha' Allah himself suggests tliait boys be named Husavn or 'Ali and given the laqab 'Abd al‑Baha', and that girls be called Dhlkriyya, Nuriyya, Sadhijiyya or 'Tzziyya and giv,en the laqab Amat Allah (maidservant of God). 140 Elsewhere, he expresses approval

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for the names Diya', Badi', Husayn and 'Ali. 141 'Abd al‑Baha' states that the names Baha' Allah and Bab may not be given to children, but that it is permissible to name them 'Abd al‑Baha'. 142
Numerous regulations exist in respect of the washing, shrouding and burial of the dead. A prayer exists by Baha' Allah which is to be read at the bedside of the dying and afterwards up to the time of burial.' 43 The body of the deceased is to be wrapped in five shrouds of silk and cotton or, if this is not possible, in one only. 144 As in Babi law, a ringstone is to be placed on a finger of the dead. 145 Baha' Allah mentions the Babi inscriptions "Unto God belongs whatever is in the heavens and the earth and whatever is between them; God is, verily, informed of all things" for men, and "Unto God belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and whatever is between them; God is, verily, powerful over all things" for women. 146 He goes on, however, to say that this represents an earlier decree and that it would be preferable for a new inscription to be used, identical for both men and women: "I began in God and I have returned unto Him, detached from all else save Him and clinging unto His name, the Merciful, the Compassionate." 147 This ringstone is only to be used in the case of adults. 148
The dead are to be placed in coffiris of crystal (al‑bulúr), rare stone (al‑a~jár al‑mumtani'a) or attractive hard wood (al‑akhsháb al‑sulba al‑latffa) .149 The place of burial is to be no farther than one hour's journey from the city in which death occurs. 150 'This applies equally to travel on land or sea, but the less time taken the better. 15 1 The body is to be placed towards the Baha'i qibla, 152 with the feet facing in that direction.' 53 At present, however, the practice in Islamic countries is to bury the dead facing towards Mecca in order not to excite trouble from the Muslim populace.154
The Babi salat of six takbirat followed by six set phrases to be repeated 19 times is prescribed by Baha' Allah. 155 Before this is performed, however, a prayer is to be read by one individual, the text of which is provided by Baha' Allah, in one form for a man and another for a woman, in a tablet giving the details of the salat for the dead., 56 If no one able to read is present, only the takbirat need be recited. 157 The takbir is not, as in Islam, Allahu akbar, but Allahu abha (being regarded as a salutation), as stated by 'Abd al‑Baha'. 158 According to Shoghi Effendi, the takbirat are to be recited at a medium pace, neither fast nor slow. 1 59 The entire prayer for the dead is to be performed before burial takes place; it is not necessary for those present to face the qibla while reciting it. It is to be said only for adults. 160
Cremation is not prohibited, but is strongly discouraged. 161 Similarly, it is not forbidden to expose the dead on a dakhma or "tower of silence" (as was the Zoroastrian practice), but this is not advised. 162 A body, once buried, may be moved to another spot, although respect is to be

shown in doing so. 163 Shoghi Effendi himself undertook the transfer of remains considered sacred to the Baha'is for re‑burial in Haifa, and this practice has been continued by the Universal House of Justice in Iran and elsewhere.
The expression of inordinate grief or happiness on occasions such as a death or birth is deplored, a middle course being reconimended. 1641 'he Islamic convention of holding specific mourning rites after one week and
165
40 days is abrogated, but memorial gatherings are commonly held at an interval after the burial and, in many cases, on an annual basis. 166 At these gatherings, prayers by Baha' Allah and 'Abd al‑Baha' are read, in
167
particular the Hurúftát‑i 'áIiyyát of Baha' Allah.
In the Lawh‑l'bishárát, Baha' Allah states that "to make journeys for the purpose of visiting those that are in their graves is unnecessary‑" 1(,,8 According to 'Abd al‑Baha', this is to be taken as referring only to travel from one country to the next expressly for this purpose. 169 Both this and the regulation concerning one hour's journey as the maximum before burial seem to have been designed to abolish the Shi'i praictice of sending bodies to be buried near the shrines of Imams and other holy figures and later performing lengthy journeys to visit the graves of relatives in Iraq and elsewhere.
No particular rites are indicated for visits to graves, ottier than the general custom of reading prayers or, where one exists, a ziyaratnama. In the case of the resting‑place of Shams al‑Wuzara' in Qum, however, 'Abd al‑Baha' requested that, in the course of ziyara to it, candles be lit, since this would be "a cause of drawing nigh unto the court of grandeur". 170 This would certainly seem to make acceptable the Islamic practice of lighting candles at graves in general. As noted earlier, Baha'is make use of the nine‑pointed star symbol on headstones, the "greatest name" now being regarded as too sacred for this purpose.' 71 The latter will, however, be seen on older Baha'i tombstones.
Marriage is ordained by Baha' Allah in the Kitáb al‑aqdas, 172 but is not, as in Babism, made obligatory. 173 Both men and women may marry at the age of legal maiturity (15), but not before, aind it is forbid(leii to betroth a girl before this age. 174 As in Babism, the consent of both parties is necessary to the match, but Baha' Allah also insists on the consent of all living parents. 175 Marriage to two women is permitted, but monogamy is recommended. 176 In practice, bigamy is forbidden to Baha'is at present, but it is important to note that 'Abd al‑Baha' has stated that "by the clear text of the holy book, marriage with two wives is permissible; this can never be prohibited, but is permissible (halal) and allowable". 177 Elsewhere, fie states that "concerning the matter of polygamy, this is decreed and cannot be abrogated; 'Abd al‑Baha' has not abrogated it.',178 He does, however, make it clear that, since marrying a second wife has been made dependent on an impossible

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condition (to treat both with absolute justice ‑ a Quranic condition also), it may be considered as an injunction to monogamy. 179 Shoghi Effendi states that, since the condition is impossible to fulfil, bigamy is clearly forbidden. 180
Following the agreement of both parties and all parents, an engagement period of 95 days is to be observed. 181 It is permissible neither to hold the wedding before this period is completed nor to delay after it. 182 The marriage is to be consummated on the same evening that the ceremony is held. 183 The ceremony itself is basically very simple. Baha' Allah himself provides the following outline of it:

You have asked concerning the laws of marriage and divorce. That which was sent down previously on this matter in the Kitáb al‑aqdas has been forwarded. Likewise, a sermon (khulba) has been sent down from the heaven of divine oneness in this connection. After the consent of the two parties and the consent of the parents, they should present themselves in a gathering of the pious and recite this blessed sermon with the greatest joy and fragrance. After reading the khutba, the two beloved in one place should read these two blessed verses that have been sent down in the Bayán. The two verses mentioned in the Bayán should be written down, after which the husband should hand over the dowry to the wife and both of them should put their seals upon a sheet of paper, and the witnesses likewise. And if it be a place where the people are unable to read the sermon, it is no matter; the reading of the two verses is sufficient.184

According to the Risála‑yi su'ál wa jawáb, the two verses to be repeated are "We are all, verily, content with God", using tiic masculine form for the man and the feminine for the woman, which does not correspond exactly to the forms given in the Persian or Arabic Bayáns or in the Haykal al‑dn. 185 The recitation of the sermon is not considered obligatory. 1 86
In practice, Baha'is are discouraged from allowing a rigid pattern for the marriage rite to develop. In general, couples select prayers and other passages from Baha'i (and, sometimes, other) writings, which are read by friends and relatives, on occasion with music interspersed. At some point during these proceedings the two verses are recited. In the West, it is not uncommon to have the chairman of the local Baha'i Assembly officiate during the recital of the verses, and this practice is generally required in areas where Baha'i marriage is recognized. In many cases in the West, a reading popularly known as the "Marriage Tablet" is used at weddings. This is, in fact, a talk given by 'Abd alBaha' to Mirza Ahmad Sohrab on 22 December 1918 , before the latter's

departure from Palestine, in which he gives Sohrab advice oli clioosing a wife. The earlier portion, which refers to the choice of wife, is always omitted. 187

8 Festivals
A total of four festivatis are instituted by Balla' Allah in the Kitfib alaqdas. These are New Year's Day, Naw‑Ruz, 188 the festival of Ridwan, 189 the day of the Bab's "declaration", 190 and the festival of the births of the Bab and Baha' Allah.191 These comprise a totail of seven days. To these seven, two further holy days were later formally added by 'Abd al‑Baha' ‑ the anniversaries of the death of Baha' Allah and the martyrdom of the Bab. 192 Of the nine holy days which'Abd al‑Baha' lists, some, he says, are ordained in the sacred text (bi‑nusús‑i ilálliv a)
, y
and others are cailculated by anailogy with it (qiyás bi‑áti	On ttiese
nine days, work of any kind is prohibited."'
Naw‑Ruz, the only holy day ordained in the Bayán, is celebrated both as the first daiy of the new yeair, failliiig on ttie veriiail e(iiiinox (nortilailly 21 March), and as a festival corresponding to the Muslim 'Id al‑Fitr, to celebrate the end of the fast. 195
The Ridwan festival, known as the "Most Great Festival" (al‑"d ala'zani), commemorates the "declaration" of Baha' Allah in the Najibiyya garden (renamed by Baha'is the Ridwan garden) outside Baghdad in 1863. Covering a period of 12 days in all, from 21 April to 2 May, the first, ninth, and twelfth days are designated by Baha' Allah as holy days on which work is to be suspended."' Commemorations for the first day of Ridwan are held at about 3.00 Pm on 21 April. 197
The "declarattion" of the Bab (yawni‑i ba'that) was, as we have noted earlier, origiiiailly added to the Islamic calendar by the Bab as a date to be eoiiiinemoraited, but wais not sl)eeiticailly institutcd ais at lioly daly ill the Baj,áti. It failis on 23 May or, more precisely, from suiiset on 22 May to sunset on the 23rd, the actual "declaration" having occtirred, according to the Persian Bayán, at two hours and 11 minutes after sunset. 198 'I'he celebraition of this event takes place at this time.""' 'I'lie birth of 'Abd al‑Baha' is reckoned by Baha'is to have taken place on the same day, but he himself strictly forbade the celebration of this latter event on the datte in question. 200
	T'he births of the Bab and Baha' Allah occurred on I Muharrani 1235/
20 October 1819 and 2 Muharrarn 1233/12 November 1817 respectively.
On the basis of the Islamic lunar calendar, they fall, therefore, on two
consecutive days and, for this reason, are regarded by Baha' Allah "as
		201
one day". Unlike all ttie other Bathai'i holy days, these two are
202
observed in accordance with the Islamic calendar, but at present the practice in the West is to commemorate them on a solar basis, resulting in a gap of almost a month between them.

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64
65

The death of Baha' Allah (usually referred to as his "passing" or .4ascension" ‑ su'fld) occurred on 29 May 1892. 'The event is commem
203
orated at 3.00 Am on this day. The martyrdom of the Bab, which took place on 9 July 1850, was commemorated during the lifetime of Baha' Allah, although, as we have noted, it was not included as a holy day in the Kitáb al‑aqdas. From the time of Baha' Allah, the martyrdom of the Bab has been commemorated in the East according to the Muslim calendar, on 28 Sha'ban, whereas Western Baha'is observe a holy day on 9 July. According to 'Abd al‑Baha', commemoration on the solar date is correct and the anniversary will in future be observed universally on that basis. 204 The martyrdom is commemorated at noon on either of
20 5 these dates.
During the lifetime of 'Abd al‑Baha', in response to requests for a day to be celebrated in his honour, a festival was instituted by him on 26 November, known in the East as the Jashn‑i A'zam (most great festival ‑ using the Persian word jashn and not 'id, which is reserved for the Ridwan, Naw‑Ruz and birth celebrations) or yawm‑i julús (day of the accession) and in the West as the Day of the Covenant. 206 Following the death of 'Abd al‑Baha', the day of his passing was designated as a Baha'i anniversary, the event being commemorated at 1.00 AM on 28
207
November.	According to Shoghi Effendi, it is not prohibited to work
on these two	days, but they are to be regarded as "among the specific
20 8 holy days".
There are no specific rites laid down for the commemoration of these holy days, although it is normal for Baha'is to hold communal gatherings for that purpose. It is regarded as obligatory to recite "revealed" verses on these days, although these do not have to be devotions or tablets specifically written for the festival in question. 209 There are, nevertheless, numerous Baha'i writings either designed to be read on a specific holy day or in some way closely associated with it. Thus, for example, the ziyaratnama for the Bab and Baha' Allah, which is used at their shrines, ought to be read on the days of their martyrdom or
210
death. In practice, this ziyara is also normally recited on other holy days associated with the Bab and Baha' Allah (such as the anniversaries of their births), and is invariably chinted or read while the congregation stands facing the qibla. This practice, for which there does not appear to be any specific injunction (and which probably represents sunna practice traditionally established by 'Abd al‑Baha'), is certainly an important ritual element in these gatherings. Other writings commonly used in Iran in connection with specific holy days are: a tablet by Baha' Allah
21 	212
for the evening of the birth of the Bab, 1 and the Lawh‑i ru'yá, also by Baha' Allah, both for the anniversary of the birth oi the Bab; three tablets by Baha' Allah, the Lawh‑i ghulám al‑khuld, Lawh‑i náqús and Lawh‑i layla‑yi mab'ath213 , all for the declaration of the Bab. The

translation of the Latvh‑i tiáqiús appeairs in Appendix XXVI. 'I'exts of these and other tablets and historical passages have been collected in a single volume by 'Abd al‑Hamid Ishraq Khavari, entitled Ayyánl‑i lis'a, which serves as a handbook for the celebration of Baha'i holy days in Iran. Apart from the reading of sacred texts, it is customary at Balial'i gatherings on these occasions to read passages detailing the historical events involved or to have someone speak about these events and their significance ‑ a practice clearly based on the Shi'i custom of rawdakhwani.
In addition to these 11 anniversaries, Baha'is are frequently called on to celebrate centenaries or quinquagenaries of significant events in Baha'i history. This often involves the holding of special gatherings for the purpose of communal devotions.
Finally, it should be noted that Baha'is do not observe a specilic day in the week as a holy day or a day of communal prayer. Friday,
	214
however, is designated a day of rest, 	and it is possible that religious
gatherings will increasingly be held on that day in future.

9 The Nineteen‑Day Feast
In our section on Babi festivals, we noted that each believer was expected, once a month, to invite 19 individuals as guests. This, in a much modified form, has become the later Baha'i institution of the Nineteen‑Day Feast (qy,áfat‑i núzdah rúza), a gathering held once every 19 days. In the Kitáb al‑aqdas, Baha' Allah re‑institutes the original Babi practice: "Receiving guests (al‑diyáfa) has been written down for you once a month, even if it be with water."215 It is not, however,
216 regarded as obligatory to do this. At this stage, the practice did not involve anything more than the monthly extension of hospitality to friends, the number of guests not being specified as in Babism. A more definitely religious element was introduced later by 'Abd al‑Baha', who stated that, in addition to its function as means of encouraging friendship and unity between men, this "feast" ought also to serve as a gathering at which mention of God (dhikr‑i iláh) should be mal(le, verses read and prayers chanted .217 It is, in fact, to be regarded as "one of the meetings for the mention of God and the gatherings for His worship", and its primary purpose is the performance of these devotions. 218 This religious significatice is enhanced for Western Baha'is by frequent references by 'Abd al‑Baha' to this monthly feast as being in essence comparable to the Christian Lord's Supper. 219
Under the administration of Shoghi Effendi, which involved a marked increase in the organizational aspects of Baha'i community life, the Nineteen‑Day Feast, as it now came to be known, was radically altered and acquired a more structured form. As it is now observed, the Feast is divided into three distinct parts: a devotional programme, consisting of

66

67

the reading by individuals of prayers by Baha' Allah, the Bab, or 'Abd al‑Baha'; an administrative section, at which local Baha'i Assemblies make reports to their communities, consult with them, and disseminate information sent from the national Baha'i headquarters in each country; and a "material Feast", at which food is eaten and those present meet socially .221' The originally individual character of the observance has been almost entirely lost; a Feast may only be held under the jurisdiction of a Baha'i Assembly, although an individual will usually be asked to host the gathering in his own home. But there is no longer any question of each individual Baha'i holding his own Feast each month, unless, of course, he does so on a purely informal basis, in which case it will not constitute a Nineteen‑Day Feast. The Feast should preferably be held on the first day of the Baha'i month or, if this clashes with a regular public meeting or whatever, on the nearest possible date within the same Baha'i month .22 1 This meeting forms the only regular gathering for any Baha'i community (except where a particular community institutes regular weekly, fortnightly or monthly meetings for the purposes of prayer, study or social intercourse, which are not regular for all communities) and is the nearest equivalent to a church service in Christianity or Friday prayer in Islam, while considerably less formalized. Within the limits of the programme set out, individual hosts and communities are encouraged to develop original ways in which to celebrate these feasts, particularly in respect of the devotional portion. In Iran, however, a national committee prepares the entire programme for feasts throughout the country, which is distributed to local Assemblies on a regular basis.

10 The Mashriq al‑adhkar
The Kitáb al‑aqdas contains an injunction to build houses for the
	222
mention of God. Any house constructed for this purpose, whether in
a city or village, is to be known as a Mashriq al‑adhkár, a "dawning
223
point of the mentions [of God]". It is particularly recommended by
Baha' Allah that individuals go to the Mashriq al‑adlikar in the early
morning (fi 'I‑ashár) '224 or, indeed, up to two hours after sunrise '225 for
the purpose of prayer. 'Abd al‑Baha' states that, in the Mashriq al
adhkar, various forms of prayer may be offered (du'a, munajat, namaz),
	226
and the divine verses chanted. No fixed forms are given for worship in
the Mashriq al‑adhkar; Shoghi Effendi, as we have noted earlier, has
insisted that this "House of Worship" "will gather within its chastened
walls, in a serenely spiritual atmosphere, only those who, discarding for
ever the trappings of elaborate and ostentatious ceremony, are willing
		227
worshippers of the one true God". Images or statues are prohib
ited '228 as is the use of a pulpit (minbar) ‑ a chair being recommended
for the use of those reading the sacred texts. 229

During the time of 'Abd al‑Baha', it was recommended that small meetings for the purpose of prayer and the reading of verses be held, these being known as Masháriq al‑adhkár. 231 Similarly, in Iran at present, it is common to refer to prayer meetings held in the eirly morning by this same term. fiere again, there are no riarrow forms prescribed. All that maiy be observed with respect to Baha'i practice in Iran is that prayers are always read or, more usually, chanted by a single individual, who remains seated. Only prayers written by the Bab, Baha' Allah, 'Abd al‑Baha, or Shoghi Effendi maty be used (in the West, those of the last‑named are not known, although Irainiains maty occalsionally chant them). It is common for the reader on completing a prayer to kiss the prayer‑book and to touch it to the forehead in the traditional gesture of respect, although this practice is by no meatns tiniversal. Apart from these, no ritual forms are normally observed at devotional 231
gatherings.
In the early part of the 20th century, a tradition of Baha'i hymnody was developed in the United Stattes, centred on selections of hymns written chiefly by Louise Waite. This devotional trend was later severely modified, particularly within the context of the Baha'i temple at 232
Wilmette.	In recent years, however, there seems to have been a
return to the	use of music, but not of collective hymn‑singiiig.

I I Dress
In Islam, Prophetic tradition established a code of practice with regard to dress, particularly in respect of men. T‑he semi‑ritual character of Islamic dress is made sharply clear in tile objections of niainy 'Idanla' to the wearing of Western clothes or in the inipaict on religious life of ttie reforms in this respect instituted by Atatiirk in 'Furkey or Reza Stiaiii in Iran. Babi law tactily accepts Islamic garb and, as we have noted, there are specific references in the Ba),án to the 'aba and jubba and their respective appropriateness for salat. We have noted also the Bab's injunction agatinst ttie weatring of blaick, ats a result of which niiny Balbis favoured wilite elo(iiiiig. This latter custom wais pzirtictilairly rciiiairked by E. G. Browne among the Baha'is whom lie met in Haifa aiid Acre in 213
the course of his visit to Palestine in 1890.
In the Kitáb al‑aqdas, however, all restrietions on ttie iiiititicr of men's dress are abolished: "God has lifted from you the decree of restriction with regard to dress and beard as a bounty from Him. He, verily, is the Ordainer, the Knowing. Do that which sound minds will not reject and maike not yourselves a plaything for tile igtiorant." 234 In the Lawh‑i bisltárát, he similarly states that "the reins of dress and the ordering of the beard have been committed to the hands of men's free choice. But beware, 0 people, lest you make yourselves a plaything for the ignorant."235 In a letter to the Baha'i poet 'Andalib, Baha' Allaih

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69

makes it clear that the earlier prohibition on the wearing of foreign garb
236
has been abolished.
The Aqdas does, however, make a restriction with regard to the cutting of men's hair. It is prohibited both to shave the head and to allow the hair to cover the ears. 237 In accordance with this latter prohibition, it became customary among the Baha'is in the time of Baha' Allah and later to wear the hair swept back behind the ears and
238
cut at their lower level, as noted by Browne. In practice, this rule is generally disregarded in the West, although it has come to the attention of the author that in some areas, such as India, it is rigidly enforced.
'Abd al‑Baha' strongly deprecated the Western practice of women appearing in public with heads uncovered and enjoined the wearing of the chárqad or scarf, which would surround the face on all sides and prevent men not of the family from seeing their hair. 239 The face and
240
hands alone may be uncovered. In practice, this injunction is far from being observed, whether by Western Baha'i women or emancipated Iranian women, and it is hard to see how it could be enforced at the present time.

BAHA'I RITUAL PRACTICE
Both Babism and Baha'ism possess a high ritual content, almost all of it of a prescriptive nature. There is virtually no customary practice and, indeed, there has been little enough time for this to develop, even in the oldest Baha'i communities. There are significant differences between Western and Eastern Baha'i practice, with greater incidence of ritual being observed in the case of the latter. Western Baha'is possess a limited amount of information about ritual practices, have few translations of relevant texts, and belong to backgrounds which have not prepared them to understand the precise nature of observances such as salat and hajj. Nevertheless, they are often eager to learn of and to observe devotional practices with a ritual flavour, as exemplified by the exercise of repeating 500 "Removers of Difficulties". A comparison in terms of the observance of basic rituals such as salat between firstgeneration Western converts and Iranians from Baha'i families of several generations would be instructive.
Innovation tends to be limited, scriptural authority generally being sought for any practice which it is desired to introduce. From less literate communities, however, come reports of greater laxity in this respect and a stronger tendency to conserve traditional customs. Most Western Baha'is tend to be individuals who have rebelled in youth or early adulthood against their religious upbringing and are, for that reason, generally loth to tolerate practices with a Christian appearance, while being eager to adopt observances which will enhance or emphasize their new religious identity. African, Indian and other Baha'is from

traditional societies tend, as far as the present writer is able to ascertatin, to see their new religion in terms of their indigenous beliefs and culture and to be less eager to abandon these in favour of new practices introduced by Baha'i missionaries. 241 Here again, a comparative study would be of immense value.
It is obviously difficult to predict future trends. Clearly, present devotional practice, whatever its merits in terms of simplicity and spontaneity, may be felt by many to be lacking in a certain intensity found in other forms of worship. The transcending qualities of a King's College, Cambridge, Advent service or a Sufi dltikr are not lightly to be dismissed, nor are the heritages that they represent. It is in human nature to seek the sublime in acts of worship whose solemnity allows the individual worshipper to rise above his mundane and every(lay self. The charm of the Quaker meeting will not enable all men to find transcendence. It is almost certain, therefore, that within the Baha'i community there will develop increasingly artistic and formal expressions of existing ritual practices, without transgressing the fundamental injunction against excessive ritualism. What form such worship would take it is, of
242
course, beyond the scope of the present study to suggest.

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List of Abbreviations
Adi'a: Mirzd Husayn 'Ali NFuri, Bahá' A115h, Adia‑yi hadrat‑i mahbúb
Amr: Mirz,á Asad Alldh Fádil‑i Mázandaránl (ed.), Amr wa khalq, vol.
	III or IV
B.A.: Sayyid 'All Muhammad Shirázi, the Báb, al‑Bayán al‑'Arab'
B.F.: Sayyid 'Ali Mu]Jammad Shirázi, the Báb, Bayán‑i Fdrs'
CUL: Cambridge University Library
E.: Elder's translation of Mirzá Husayn 'Ali Nfiri‑ Bahd' Alláh, al‑Kitáb
	al‑aqdas
H.: al‑Hasani's edition of Mirzá Husayn 'Ali Nfiri Bahd' Alláh, al‑Kitáb
	al‑aqdas, in appendix to al‑Bábiyún wa 'I‑Bahá'iyiin
H.A.: 'Abd al‑Hamid Ishrdq Khdvar! (ed.), Ganjina‑yi hudúd wa
	ahkám
H. 6.: Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad Shirázi, the Báb, Haykal al‑dn
INBA: Iran National Baha'i Archives
Tasbfh: Mirzá Husayn 'All Nfuti‑, Bahá' All5h, Risála‑yi tasbih wa tahlil
Notes

I INTRODUCI ION
I	For general bibliographies, see William P. Collins, Bibliography of EnglishLanguage works on the Babiand Bahi7faiths, 1844‑1985 (Oxford 1990); D. M. MacEoin, Babism, Baha'ism, in L. P. Elwell‑Sutton (ed.), Bibliographical Guide to Iran (Brighton and Totowa 1983); idem, The Literature of Baha'ism and its Study. A Critical Assessment and Annotated Bibliography, Bibliographies and Indexes in Religious Studies (in preparation). For the titics of dissertations on both movements, see P. Smith, Doctoral and Masters'Theses on Bah5'i Subjects (192‑3‑77), Bulletin of the British Society for Middle East Studies 6/ii (1979), pp. 129‑30, and idem, Additional Doctoral and Masters' Theses Relating to Bibi and Baha'i Subjects, ibid 9/i (1982), pp.89‑90. The following brief introductions may be consulted: D. M. MacEoin, Babism, Encyclopaedia Iranica, III, pp.309‑17; idem, Baha'ism, in J. R. Ilinnells (ed.), A Handbook of Living Religions (London 1984); A. Bausani, Babis, Baha'is, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed.; J. Cole, BahYi Faith i, Encyclopaedia Iranica, I 11, pp.438 ‑ 46.
2.	It has been estimated that, by the late 1840s, the Babis numbered as many as INOW, constituting some 1.7 to 2.2 per cent of the Iraniain populattion (see P. Sjiiitli, A Note on Balm arid Baha'i Numbers in Iran, Baha'iStildies Bulletin I/iv [Newcastle 19831, pp.3‑7). This figure requires some qualification, but it is a rough indication of the rapidity with which the Babi movement spread in Iran during its first years. See also, M. Momen, The social basis of the B5bi upheavals in Iran (1848‑53): a preliminary analysis, International Journal of Middle East Studies 15 (1983), pp. 157‑83; Peter Smith and Moojan Momen, The 135bi Movement: A Resource Mobilization Perspective, in P. Smith (cd.), In Iran: Studies in 130bi and Bahd'[ History Volume 3 (Los Angeles 1986), pp.33‑93; Abbas Amanat, Resurrection and Renewal: the making of the BdbT movement in Iran, 1844‑1850 (Ithaca and London 1989).
3.	See D. M. MacEoin, Azali Babism, Encyclopaedia Iranica, 111, pp.179‑81.
4.	On the Babi scriptures as a whole, see idem, flaty,‑in, in ibid, III, pp.878 82;

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72
73

idem, The Sources for Early Bdbi Doctrine and History: A Survey (Leiden, New York, Cologne 1992).
5.	On the emergence of Baha'ism out of Babism, see idem, From Babism to Baha'ism: problems of militancy, quietism, and conflation in the construction of a religion, Religion 13 (1983), pp.219‑55.
6.	See H. M. Balyuzi, Baha'u'llah: the King of Glory (Oxford 1980); Mirz5 Muhammad Jawad Qazwini, An Epitome of 135bi and Baha'i History to A.D. 1898, in E. G. Browne, Materials for the Study of the Babi Religion (Cambridge 1918), pp.3‑63; Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By (Wilmette, 111. 1944), pp.89‑233; J. R. 1. Cole, Bah5'‑All5h, Encyclopaedia Iranica, 111, pp.422‑9.
7.	By the 1880s, it numbered about 100,000 adherents (between 1.25 and 2.0 per cent of the population), and from the 1910s to the 1950s the figure grew to between 100,000 and 200,000, representing a decline in population percentage (to between 0.5 and 1.1 per cent). Current numbers are estimated at between 300,000 and 350,000 (0.9 to 1.0 per cent of the population). See Smith, Babi and Baha'i Numbers.
8.	See idem, The American Bah5'! Community 1894‑1917: A Preliminary Survey, in M. Momen (ed.), Studies in Bdbi and Bahd'I History (Los Angeles 1983), pp.85‑223.
9.	The following are the main works in which the Baha'i shari'a was elaborated, albeit with a lack of real detail: Al‑kitab al‑aqdas (for details of editions, see Chapter 3, note 2); Risala‑yi su'dl wa jawdb; Lawh‑i ishrjqdt, in Bah5' Allah, Alwdh‑i mubdraka‑yi Hadrat‑i Bahd' Alldh . . . shamil‑i ishrdq,át ... (n. p. n. d pp.50‑85; Lawh‑i bishtir,áI, in idem, MajmiVa‑yi alw4h‑i mubdraka (Cairo 1333/1920), pp. 116‑24; Lawh‑i dunyd in ibid, pp.285‑301. For translations of the last three, see H. Tahcrzadeh (trans.), Tablets of Baha'u'lldh revealed after the Kitab‑i‑Aqdas (Haifa 1978), pp.99‑134, 19‑29, 81‑97.
10.	On the contrast drawn by early Baha'is between the fanaticism of Babism
	and Baha'i tolerance, see MacEoin, From Babism to Baha'ism.
11.	1. Goldziher, Muslim Studies, 11, trans. C. R. Barber (London 1972);
	J. Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford 1950).
12.	The Faith of Bah5i'u'115h, in Shoghi Effendi, Guidance for Today and
	Tomorrow (London 1953), p.9.
13.	M. Perkins and P. Hainsworth, The Baha'i Faith (London 1980), pp.51‑2,
	62‑93.
14.	On ‑ Islamic ritual generally, see Encyclopaedia of Islam, I st and 2nd editions, under AdhAn, 'Akika, 'Ash&A, Bairam, Dhikr, Djafr, alDjamra, Djandba, Djin5zal Djum'a, Du'5, F5tiha, Ghusl, Hadath, Ijadjdj, Ijaid, HamA'il, Hizb, 'Ib5dat, 'Id, '11d al‑Adh5, 'Id al‑Fitr, 'Idda, lhr5m, Im5m‑B5ra, Istikh5ra, Ftik5f, Kasam, Khatib, Khitan, Khutba, kibla, Kunfit, Kurb5n, Masdjid, Mawlid, Mik5t, Musall5, N'adhr, Nlya, Radjrn al‑Saf5, Ramadan, Sadjdj5da, Sal5t, Sawm, Sa'y, Sihr, Subha, Sutra, Tabadjdjud, TahAra, Tar5wih, Taw5f, Tayammum, Ta'ziya 'Umra,'Urs, Wird, Wu&', WukEf, Ziy!ra. Most standard works on Islam have a section on gener al devot ional and other ritual practice.

15.	SUf1 ritual is discussed in J. S. Trimingham, 7he Suft Orders in blam (Oxford 1971), chap. 7. The North Africati orders are dealt with in ~‑,mile Dermenghem, Le culte des saints dans l7slam maghrMin (Paris 1954), csp. parts 3‑5. Ritual within two orders is analysed in M. Gilsenen, Saint and Sufi in Modern Egypt (Oxford 1973) and J. K. Birge, The Beklashi Order of Dervishes (London 1965), chap. 4.
16.	On Shi'i ritual, see D. Pinault, The Shiites: ritual and popular piet ' V in a
	Muslim community (London 1992); M. Ayoub, Redemptive Suffering in
	Islam: a study of the devotional aspects of Ashura in Twelver Shi'ism (The
	Hague 1978); P. Chclkowski (ed.), Ta'ziyeh: ritual and drama in Iran (New
	York 1979).
17.	On some popular religious practices, including use of the rosary, see Samuel Zwemer, Studies in Popular Islam (London and New York 1939). See also E. E. Calverley, Worship in Islam (Madras 1925); It. Mass6, Croyances el coutumes persanes (Paris 1938); B. A. Donaldson, The Wild Rue (London 1938); E. W. Lane, Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, 2 vols. (London 1836, and later eds); E. Westermarck, Ritual and Belief in Morocco, 2 vols. (London 1926); 1). C. Pliillott, Biblioniancy, divination, superstitions among the Persians, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal N.S. 2 (1906), pp.399‑442.

2 BAB[ RITUAL OBSERVANCES
I . QayyC4m al‑asmi!', CUL, Browne Oriental Ms. F.11, f.185b.
2.	Sah'fa‑),i 'adliyya (n.p. n.d.), pp.5‑6.
3.	MirzA Muhammad 'Ali Zuniizi, Ristila quoted in Mirzii Asad Allah F5dil‑i
	Mazandar5ni, Kildb‑i zuhC4r al‑haqq, III (n.p. n.d.), pp.31‑2.
4.	Sharh‑i hill‑i Tdhira Qurrat at‑'Ayn (appended to Tabrizi, T&[kh‑i Mu'in
	al‑Saltana, INBA, Ms. 19), p.6.
5.	The two main mss. used by me are CUL, Add. 3704 (6) and INBA,
	6(X)9.C. For details, see MacEoin, Sources, pp.59‑60.
6.	The two mss. used by me are INBA, 5006.C, pp.262‑78, and 6007.C,
	pp.41‑3‑52. See MacEoin, Sources, pp.64‑5.
7.	The three mss. used by me are INBA, 3006‑C, pp.14"2; 5010.C, pp.82
	166, and 601 LC pp.81‑120. See MacEoin, Sources, pp.6F‑7l.
8.	The ms. used by me (and the only one known to me) is INBA, 5010.C,
	pp. 166‑75.
9.	The principal ms. used by me is CUL, Browne Or. Ms. F.7. See MacEoin,
	Sources, pp.00‑‑61.
10. SahTfa bayna Tharamayn, pp.27‑37.
II. Ibid, pp.4".
12. lbid, pp.55‑8, 64‑6.
13. Ibid, pp.84‑96.
14. lbid, pp.96‑101.
15. lbid, pp. 101‑22.
16. lbid, pp.66‑84.
17. See MacEoin, Sources, pp.90‑91.

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75

18.	Baydn‑i Fdrs' (n.p. n.d.), Wdhid 8, bJb 6, hereafter given as 8:6 (p.286).
19.	Ibid, 6:5 (p. 196).
20.	Jbid, 6:11 (p.217), 7:11 (p.253).
21.	Ibid, 6:19 (p.237).
22.	Ibid, 6:3 (p. 192).
23.	Ibid, 6:14 (p.229).
24.	Jbid, 7:6 (p.246).
25.	Al‑Baydn at‑'Arab[ (n.p. n.d.), 10:15.
26.	See 'A. F. (? 'All Frahvashti), A'fn‑i AM (n.p. n.d.), p.93 fn.
27.	B.A., 7:19 (p.32); Haykal al‑d1n, published with ibid, 7:19 (p.31); B.F.,
	7:19 (p.272).
28.	H.D., 7:19 (p.31).
29.	B.F., 7:19 (p.270). On these four unities, see Shaykh Ahmad al‑Ahsa'i, Sharh al‑ziydra al‑jdmi'a'al‑kabira (Tehran 1267/1850‑51)*, Pt.1, pp.i2‑3; idem, ~layjt al‑nafs, trans. Sayyid KAzim Rashti, 2nd. cd. (Kirman 1353/ 1974‑5), p.37; kidjji Mirzd JAni KAshAni, Kitab‑i Nuqfat al‑kaf, cd. E. G. Browne (Leiden and London 1910), p.23.
30.	B.F., 7:19 (p.272).
31.	Ibid, 9:9 (p.324).
32.	B.A., 5:2 (p.18), H.D., 5:2 (p.5), 4:12, 13 (p.16).
33.	B.A., 9:9 (p.42).
34.	B.F., 8:8 (p.289).
35.	B.A., 8:7 (p.34), c.f. H.D., 9:7 (p.33).
36.	On Bushru'i and Barfurushi, see D. MacEoin, Bogrft'i, Encyclopaedia Iranica, IV, p.383 and BarforCiU, ibid, III, p.794; idem, articles in Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., VII, pp.422, 440‑41.
37.	B.A., 10:8 (p.47).
38.	Ibid, 8:7 (p.34). Cf. Trimingham, p.213, on tawajjuh to the shaykh and the
	Prophet as to the qibla.
39.	B.A., 11:14 (pp.59‑60).
40.	Ibid, 11:15 (p.60).
41.	Ibid, 8:10 (pp.35‑6).
42.	H. D., 8: 10 (p.34). The verse given is corrupt in this and an alternative text (where it reads: subhan Alldh al‑ilahu dh' aydanil?]); the last word may possibly have originally been al‑ayadi.
43.	B.A., 8:10 (p.35): dhi'l‑tal'a wa'l‑jamal; compare with H.D., 8:10 (p.34):
	dhiTwajh wa'l‑jamal.
44.	B.F., 8:16 (p.301).
45.	Jbid, 7:17 (p.263) and see p.264. The Arabic Bayan gives this same verse
	(7:17, p.31) with one small change.
46.	H.D., 7:17 (p.31). A much longer salutation tothe risingsun may befound
	in CUL, Browne Or. Ms. F.23, item 64.
47.	This term is used throughout the Baydn to designate the messianic figure whose future appearance the Bab foretold. For details, see Browne's introduction to K5sh5ni, Nuqfat al‑kaf, pp.xxiv‑xxvi, xxix‑xxxi.
48.	These are the first 18 individuals.to believe in a prophet and constitute with him, in Babi terminology, a wahid or unity; 19 unities form 361, the number of "all things" (kullu shay'). On the Babi hurOf al‑hayy and their

metaphysical significance, see Denis MacEoin, From Shaykhism to Babism: a study in charismatic renewal in ShN Islam, Ph.D., University of Cambridge, 1979, pp. 142‑6.
49.	B. F., 9: 19 (p. 309). The text mentions "the evening and the day of Friday" (i.e. Thursday evening and Friday up to sunset, since the Islamic and Baibi day begins at sundown), but it is not clear whether the dhikr is to be performed once or twice.
50.	Ibid. For the numerical value of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, see
	G. Krotkoff, Abjad, Encyclopaedia Iranica, I, pp.221‑2.
51.	B.A., 6:19 (p.40).
52.	The names are very confused in this text, however: llusayn, 'Ali,
	Muhammad, then Hadi, Mahdi, 'Ali, Muhammad 'Ali and Hasan.
53.	H.D., 1:6‑15 (pp.2‑4).
54.	B.A., 8:13 (p.37); H.D., 8:14 (p.35).
55.	B. F., 5:17 (p. 180). A prayer for daily use may be found in CUL, Browne
	Or. Ms. F.23, ff.177a‑182b.
56.	B.A., 5:17 (p.21).
57.	H.D., 5:17 (p.8).
58.	Chah6r sha'n, 11:8, in 'A. F., A'fn‑i Bijb, p.91.
59.	B.F., 9:4 (pp.317‑18).
60.	H.D., 8:7 (p.33).
61.	B.F., 6:1 (p.184).
62.	Ibid, 8:14 (p.296); B.A., 8:14 (p.37).
63.	B. F., 5:8 (pp. 162‑4). The Arabic Bayan gives this same verse, with the one change I associate nothing with God my Lord", B.A., 5:8 (pp.1920).
64.	H.D., 5:8 (p.7).
65.	B.F., 7:2 (pp.24("I).
66.	71c Bab maintains that, in theory, the names of God relating to each attribute total seven. Thus, in respect of the attribute of oneness (lawhid), God may be named in seven degrees: Awhad, Wahhdd, Wdhid, Wahid, Mufawahhid, Mawhid, and Muwalthad (ibid, 8:2, p.273).
67.	Ibid.
68.	Ibid, 5:9 (pp.164‑5). The choice of name or names to be used is dependent on the component letters of the name of the object. Thus, when the believer contemplates the word sang (stone), composed of three letters ‑ ,Is", 'In" and "k(or "g" in modern Persian), he should think of the names subb0h (the all‑praised), ntir (light) and karfm (the generous).
69.	B.A., ~:15 (p.43).
70.	B. F., 5: 10 (p. 166).
71.	B.A., 10:11 (pp.47‑8).
72.	B.F., 6:5 (p.196); B.A., 6:4 (p.24).
73.	H.D., 6:4 (p.22).
74.	B.A., 9:19 (p.44).
75.	Ibid, 11: 1 (pp. 5.V4).
76.	The bulk of the following section is taken from my earlier article, Nineteenth‑century BW talismans, Studia Iranica 14/i (1985), pp.77‑98. On the early claims of the Bab, see also MacEoin, From Shaykhism to

76

77

Babism, chap. 5; idem, Early Shaykh! Reactions to the Bib and his Claims, in M. Momcn (ed.), Studies in Bdbi and Bahd'f History, I (Los Angeles 1983), pp. 16‑19; and Amelia L. Danesh, Some reflections on the different meanings of the word "Bab", The Journal of BahXT Studies 2/iii (lq89‑90), pp.45‑53.
77.	See B. F., 2:9 (p.44): "How often has that same locus of the Universal Will (mazhar‑i mashiyyat‑i kulliyya) opened up a gate of mystic knowledge (ma :rifa) in the Interworld (barzakh)." On Karim Khan Kirmani's ideas regarding the availability of knowledge in the interworld, see M. Bayat, Mysticism and Dissent: Socioreligious thought in Qajar Iran (Syracuse 1982), pp.75, 77. On the Shaykhi concept of hurqa1ya, see H. Corbin, Terre Celeste et Corps de Resurrection (Paris 1960), passim (see index).
78.	On Ibn al‑'Arabi's theory of the soul being able to know its own qadar in its archetype when in a state of kashf, see T. Izutzu, A Comparative Study of the Key Philosophical Concepts in Sufism and Taoism. Part One: The Ontology of Ibn al‑'Arabf (Tokyo 1966), pp.73‑4.
79.	Kitab‑i panj sha'n (n.p. n.d.). This book derives its name from the "five grades" in which the Bab wrote his works, these being dydt (Our'anic‑style ,'verses"), mundjdt (prayers), khutba (homilies), tafsir (commentaries) and Farsi (Persian‑language writings): see B. F., 3:17 (p. 102), 6:1 (p. 184), 9:2 (p.313), where suwar 'ilmiyya (scientific treatises) replace khutba. The last five sections of the KitL!b‑i panj sha'n (which were addressed to Mirza Asad Allah Khu'i Dayyan) seem to have been distributed independently and to have been variously named the Lawh‑i hurCifat, Risala‑yi Jafariyya, and Kitab‑i haykal (or hayakil): see D. M. MacEoin, The Identity of the Bab's Lawh‑i hurafat, Baha" Studies Bulletin 2/i (June 1983), pp.78‑9; idem, Sources, pp.88‑90.
80.	Panj sha'n, p.405.
81.	Text reads mastar, but on analogy with the recurring phrase 'ilm maknan
	makhzCin, I pr~fer to read mastar.
82.	Panj sha'n, p.405.
83.	Nuq!a‑yi Baydn: the manifestation of the Universal Will is the "Point" from which all things originate, like a line of writing from an initial dot, and is the essence of the divine word in each era. Thus, Jesus was the "Point of the Gospel", Muhammad the "Point of the Qur'an", and the Bab the "Point of the Bayan". The Bab is more frequently referred to as Nuqfa‑yi Clliá, the "Primal Point".
84.	Panj sha'n, pp.446‑7.
85.	Ibid, p.447; cf. p.434.
86.	A useful summary of this subject may be found in A. L. M. Nicolas
	(trans.), Le B,4yan Persan, 4 vols. (Paris 1911‑14), 1, pp.7‑9, fn.2.
87.	B.F., 2:1 (pp.14‑15).
88.	Panj sha'n, p.412. In fact, the fourth b,áb was the eighteenth, if we CVULAL
	Muhammad, Fatima and twelve Imams.
89.	Dald'il‑i sab'a (n.p. n.d.), pp.45‑6. See also Panj sha'n, pp.422‑3.
90.	Panj sha'n, pp.406‑11.
91.	Ibid, p.407. On the "wdhid without numbers" contrasted with the "wahid
	with numbers", see p.4(~.

92.	Ibid, p.408.
93.	Ibid. See also Appendix 11.
94.	Ibid, p.428.
95.	Ibid, p.447; cf. p.434.
96.	Ibid, p.423.
97.	Ibid, p.437.
98.	Mirz5 Muhammad 'Ali Zunfizi, quoted by Mazandar5ni, Kitdb‑i zuhCir
	al‑haqq, 111, pp.31‑2.
99.	Cited by M. A. Fayqi, Hadrat‑i Nuq!a‑yi Uld (Tehran 132 B.E./1975‑‑6),
	pp.53‑4.
100.	Sahfa bayna 'I‑haramayn, CUL, Browne Or. Ms. F.7, chap. 2, pp.27‑37. ~W`o forms of ta*lisman Qilism; haykal) are referred to: rectangular (shikl al‑tarbr) and triangular (shikl al‑tathlith) ‑ see p.28. This latter would seem from the description on p.30 (which says it should not be regarded as resembling a Christian cross) to be identical to the pentagram talisman which the Bab later made the Babi haykal proper.
101.	Panj sha'n, pp.409, 413.
102.	Ibid, p.412. This cycle works out exactly.
103.	For examples, see D. C. Phillott and M. K. Shirazi, Notes on certain Shi'ah Tilisms, Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal N.S. 2/x (1906), pp. 534‑7.
104.	B.F., 5:10 (p.166).
105.	Ibid, 7:10 (pp.252‑3).
106.	B.A., 7:8 (p.30); H.D., 7:8 (p.29).
107.	This is one of several examples collected by E.G. Browne, contained in
	Folder 4, no. 10 of the Browne papers in CUL. See, for further examples,
	hay‑kals in Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad Shir5zi, the Bab, and Sayyid I * Jusayn
	Ya7di, Qisniati az alwdh‑i khall‑i Nuq!a‑yi Old wa Sayyid Husayn Kdtib
	(n.p. n.d.), pp.19, 26.
108.	B. F., 5: 10 (p. 166).
109.	Published in MAzandar5ni, Asnir al‑athar, 5 vols. (n.p. 124‑9 B.E./1968
	73), IV, pp. 115‑20; see Appendix III.
110.	On these, see H. A. Winkler, Siegel und Charaktere in der muhamrned
	anischen Zauberei (Berlin and Leipzig 1930), chap. 2.
111.	See Ibid. pp. 150‑67. Many of these devices appear in Arabic and Persian secret codes and may be legible (see C. E. Bosworth, Codes, Encyclopacdia Iranica, V, pp.883‑5).
112.	For these two types of da'ira, see Bab and Yazd!, Qismatf az alwah, pp. 11, 22. The example reproduced in MacEoin, Nineteenth‑century 135bi talismans, fig. 7, has the words Allahu a'zam in the centraljadwal, above which is the plirase, "For 'Ali, on him be peace". On circular talismans, see T. Canaan, The Decipherment of Arabic Talismans, Berytus 4 (1937), p. 109.
113.	See G. Anawati, Le Norn supitme de Dieu, Atti del Terzo Congresso di
	Studi Arabi e Islamici (Naples 1967), p.31.
114.	B.F., 6:10 (p.215); B.A., 6:10 (p.25).
115.	B. F. , 6: 10 (pp. 215‑16).
116.	H.D., 6:10 (p.24).
117.	Sharh sfira al‑qadr, in M5zandar5ni, Asrjr, V, p.241.

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118.	Kitdb‑i chahar sha'n and untitled sahifa, in 'A. F., A'in‑i Bab, pp.69‑70.
	On the untitled sahrfa, see ibid, p.49.
119.	Ibid, in 'A. F., 47n‑i Bab, p.70.
120.	Untitled sahifa, in ibid.
121.	H.D., 8:2 (p.32).
122.	B.F., 8:2 (p.274). Those who are able are required to possess three diamonds (to the number of the letters in bism), four yellow rubies (to the number of the letters in Allah), six emeralds (for al‑amna') and six red rubies (for al‑aqdas), all to be given to him whom God shall manifest (ibid, 8:5, p.285).
123.	Ibid, 8:6 (p.286). E. Douttd, Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (Algiers 1909), pp. 149‑50, 165, refers to a similar use of henna for wfiting amulets.
124.	B.F., 8:18 (p.306).
125.	B.A., 8:18 (p.39). For the Babi calendar, see Appendix V.
126.	B.F., 8:18 (p.308).
127.	Ibid, 4:12 (pp.135‑6).
128.	Ibid, 9:1 (p.312).
129.	B.A., 6:16 (p.27).
130.	B. F., 4:16 (pp. 141‑2). That the reference to the new house of God is to the Bab's Shiraz house seems evident from the remark that there is a mosque in Shiraz (the Masjid‑i Jami') in which there exists a structure similar to the ka'ba and that this is a prophetic sign established before the issuing of the decree to construct God's house in that land (ibid, p.142). On this structure, known as the khudd‑khana or House of God, see George Curzon, Persia and the Persian Question (London 1892 ), 11, pp. 101‑2. The Bab's house, which had been very faithfully preserved and restored by the Baha'is, was tragically destroyed by mob violence in 1979.
131.	H.D., 5:1 (p.5); B.A., 5:1 (p.18); B.F., 4:17 (p.145).
132.	H.D., 4:16 (p.16); B.A., 4:17 (p.16). The sentence which follows this direction in the Haykal at‑dfn (pp. 16‑17) remains incomprehensible to me: "And what was buried [or, I buried] about him, let you build upon them [fem. pl.] three times, then make mention in the house of God there" (wa md dufinat fit ~awlihi anturn 'alayhinna thalath mardt tabnC4na thurnma ft bayt Allah hundlika tadhkirCina).
133.	B. F., 4:16 (p. 144).
134.	B.A., 10:15 (p.50).
135.	B.F., 4:18 (p.146).
136.	Ibid (p. 147).
137.	Ibid (p. 146).
138.	B.A., 4:19 (p.17). On the mazahir al‑wahid as equivalent to the 19
	servants, see ibid, 4:18 (p.16.).
139.	B.F., 4:19 (p.150).
140.	Ibid, 7:15 (p.260).
141.	Ibid, 4:18 (p.146), 4:19 (p.150).
142.	B.A., 4:17 (p.16), 4:18 (pp.16‑17), 4:19 (p.17).
143.	B.F., 4:13 (p.137).
144.	Ibid (p. 138).

145.	Ibid (pp. 137‑‑8).
146.	Ibid, 4:14 (p.138).
147. Ibid, 4:15 (p.141). a
148.	Untitled s hTfa, in 'A. F., A'fn‑i Bab, p.76.
149.	For text, see CUL, Browne Or. Ms. F.23 (9), ff.98b‑‑107a.
150.	M5zandar5ni, Zuhtir at‑haqq, pp. 106, 187; Mirz5 Muhammad Taq! Visi‑In al‑Mulk Sipihr ' Nasikh al‑tawdrfkh: salatin‑i Qjjdriyya, 4 vols. (Tehran 1344/1965‑6), 111, p.234.
151.	Cf. statement of Subh‑i Azal to E. G. Browne in idem, A Catalogue and Description of 27 135bi Manuscripts, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 24 (1992), p.445.
152.	KAsh5ni, Nuq!at al‑kaf, pp. 136, 179. A copy of this ziyara may be found in CUL, Browne Or. Ms. F.22, and there are two copies in INBA (5006.C, pp.278‑84; 6012.C, pp.397‑412).
153.	1(5sh5ni, Nuqfat al‑kaf, p.108; Mull5 Muhammad Nabil Zarandi, The Dawn‑Breakers: Nabil's Narrative of the Early Days of the Balid'i Revelation, trans. and ed. Shoghi Effendi (Wilmette 1932), pp.430‑31.
154.	B.F., 8:13 (p.295).
155.	Ibid, 8:12 (p.294).
156.	CUL, Browne Or. Ms. F.23, item 65; Browne mistakenly assumed the I.plaee where this tree %w,as struck" to be the scene of the Bab's martyrdom (thus translating "the place where this Tree shall be struck down") ‑ see Catalogue and Description, p.482.
157.	Kitab al‑tahdra in INBA, 5010.C, pp. 172‑5. The text is incomplete and I am unable to list all ten purifying agents ‑ they may, however, have been fundamentally identical to those listed in the Bayan and other later works.
158.	Risdla furfi' al‑'adliyya in INBA, 5010.C, p.89 (the text refers to 'I I
	things', but only ten seem to be listed).
159.	Ibid (pp. 89‑92).
160.	Ibid (pp.92‑3).
161.	Ibid (pp.93‑4).
162.	K5sh5ni, Nuqfat al‑kaf, pp. 140‑41.
163.	B.F, 5:14 (p.174).
164.	Ibid (pp.174‑5). General instructions regarding personal cleanliness are given in ibid, 8:6 (pp.286‑7); these include complete bathing every four days, depilation every eight to 14 days, the cutting of the nails every 14 days, and the use of henna and nClrd (a depilatory unguent). The presence of even a speck of dirt on one's clothing is to be treated as a cause for disgust. In 6:2 (p.191) the use of perfumes is recommended.
165.	Ibid (p.174 and see p.173).
166.	H.D., 5:14 (p.8).
167.	B.A., 5:14 (p.21).
168.	B.F, 5:14 (p.174).
169.	B.A., 10:5 (p.46).
170.	Ibid, 10:1 (p.44).
171.	B.F., 5:14 (p.174).
172.	Ibid (p. 175).
173.	Ibid, 5:15 (p.176).

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174.	H.D., 6:17 (p.26).
175.	Ibid; B.A., 6:17 (p.28).
176.	B.F., 6:17 (p.236).
177.	Ibid, 6:9 (p.213).
178.	B.A., 8:10 (pp.34‑5); H.D., 8:10 (pp.33‑4).
179.	B.A., 8:10 (p.35); H.D., 8:10 (p.34).
180.	B.F., 6:2 (p.189); B.A., 6:9 (p.25).
181.	B.F., 6:2 (p.190).
182.	Ibid (pp. 190‑91).
183.	Ibid (p.191).
184.	Ibid, 9:10 (p.328).
185.	Ibid, 5:11 (p.168).
186.	B.A., 5:11 (p.20).
187.	See Ibid, 5:4 (p.18); H.D., 5:4 (p.6); B.F., 3:17 (p.102).
188.	B.F., 9:9 (p.324).
189.	Ibid (p.325).
190.	Ibid, 5:11 (p.168).
191.	B.A., 5:11 (p.20).
192.	B.F., 8:11 (pp.291‑2).
193.	Ibid (p.292).
194.	Ibid.
195.	B.A., 5:11 (pp.20‑21).
196.	H.D., 5:11 (p.7).
197.	B.F., 5:12 (p.170).
198.	Ibid.
199.	Ibid, 8:11 (p.292).
200.	Ibid (p.293); B.A., 8:11 (p.36).
201.	B.A., 9:18 (p.44).
202.	H.D., 6:7 (p.22).
203.	Ibid, 6:7 (pp.22‑3), 8:15 (p.36); B.F, 6:7 (pp.200‑1).
204.	B.F., 6:7 (p.200).
205.	Strictly speaking, the verb used here (yarnhuranna) ought to mean "to give the dowry", but there are objections to this reading. First of all, this would result in the statement "let them each give the dowry", which contradicts the ruling that it is only the man who is to do so. Secondly, the use of the same verb in the Haykal al‑dfn (6:7, p.23) is in a context which more obviously suggests the idea of putting a seal on something. Thirdly, the Persian Baydn (6:7, p.200) would seem to confirm this by its use of the Persian sentence har daw muhr kunand bar lawhr ‑ "let each of them place a seal on a paper". It would seem that the Bab has here formed an Arabic verb based on the word muhr (seal), from the same root as mahara (to pay a dowry) and mahr (dowry).
206.	B.A., 6:7 (p.24).
207.	The verb is masculine, but it only makes sense if treated as referring to the
	woman. The text of the Haykal al‑d[n is, in any case, extremely corrupt.
208.	None of the plurals used (ridiyCin, rddiydi) is strictly correct; the plural of
	rad" is rudi5t.

209.	H. D., 6:7 (p.23). The last phrase reads either "then let them go unto God" or, possibly More correctly, "then let them go unto the cause of God". Whether or not consummation would usually have been possible for I I ‑ year‑old couples is obviously open to question.
210.	B.F., 5:3 (p.153).
211.	Ibid.
212.	Ibid (pp. 153‑A).
213.	Ibid, 6:14 (p.228).
214.	Ibid (p.229).
215.	Ibid, 5:3 (p.154).
216.	B.A., 6:14 (pp.26‑7).
217.	The instruction is followed by the words "Verily, I am God, there is no god but Me, the King, the Powerful" ‑ it is possible that the intention is that this verse be used in the second or third person.
218.	H.D., 6:14 (p.25).
219.	B.F., 6:14 (p.229).
220.	Ibid; ibid, 5:3 (p.153).
221.	Ibid, 5:3 (p.153). On the similarity of this concept to the Zoroastrian arrangement of the days and months, see Browne, introduction to K5sh5ni, Nuqfat al‑kdf, p.lxxv.
222.	H.D., 7:4 (p.28).
223.	B.A., 9:17 (pp.43‑4).
224.	H. D., 7:11 (p.30); B.A., 9:9 (p.42).
225.	H. D., 7:11 (p.30).
226.	B.A., 9:9 (p.42).
227.	H.D., 7:11 (p.30); B.F., 7:11 (p.253).
228.	B.A., 7:11 (p.30).
229.	Ibid, 6:15 (p.27); B.F., 6:15 (p.230).
230.	B.F., 8:19 (p.309).
231.	B.A., 8:19 (pp.39‑40).
232.	B.F., 9:1 (p.322).
233.	B.A., 9:1 (pp.40‑41).
234.	On the distribution of early Babi scriptural texts, see MacEoin, Sources,
	pp. 16‑23.
235.	Lutf 'Ali Mirzi Shir5zi, Untitled History, CUL, Browne Or. Ms. F.28,
	item 2, p.71.
236.	Kash5ni, Nuq!at al‑kaf, p.231 (cf. Zarandi, Dawn‑Breakers, pp.552‑3).

3 BAHA'I RITUAL OBSERVANCES
1.	Bah5' A115h, Alwdh‑i mubdraka‑yi Hadrat‑i Bahd' Allih ... slulmil‑i
	ishrdqdt; p.83 *
2.	The Kiffib al‑aqdas was first published from a text in the handwriting of Baha' Allah, in Bombay in 1308/1890, and later by moveable type in 1314/ 1896. In 1899, the Russian orientalist Alcksandr Tumanskii published the Arabic text of the Aqdas together with his own translation and commentary (Kitabe A kdas, in Mernoires de I'Academie Imperiale des Sciences de St.

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Petersbourg, 8mc. series, 3/vi, St. Petersburg 1899). The Arabic text was published as an appendix to Mirz5 Muhammad Mahdi Kh5n Za'im alDawla's Mifiah bab al‑abwab (Cairo 1321/1903), and again separately by a Protestant missionary in Iraq, Khadfiri Ily5s'ln5yat (Baghdad 1931), these editions containing a number of errors. 'Abd al‑Razz5q al‑Hasani has published a text of the Aqdas based on the 1308/1890 edition as an appendix to Al‑BdWyCin waTBahd'iyCinfttnddihim wa hidirihim, 2nd ed. (Sidon 1381/1962). An English translation, based on the 1890 edition, was made by Earl E. Elder, Al‑Kitab al‑Aqdas or The Most Holy Book (London 1961). A more reliable English version has recently been published by the Universal House of Justice, The Kitdb‑i‑Aqdas. The Most Holy Book (London 1993), too late for the present study. Translations into other languages are expected to follow. A Persian translation, based on Mirzd Mahdi Khan's edition, exists as an appendix to the translation of Miftah bab al‑abwab by lj5jj Shaykh Hasan Farid Gulp5yg5ni, 3rd cd. (Tehran 1346/1967). 1 have made use of the very reliable text published by al‑Hasani, retaining his versification. For the convenience of those without access to this text, I also refer to Elder's translation and to two important Baha'i compilations published in Iran and containing extensive quotations from the Aqdas. These are 'Abd al‑Hamid IshrAq Kh5vari, Ganjfna‑yi hudCid wa ahkdrn, 3rd ed. (Tehran 128 ~.E./1971‑2) and Mirz5 Asad Allah F5dil‑i Wzandar5ni, Amr wa khalq, vols. 3 and 4 (Tehran 128 B.E./19712, 131 B.E./1974‑5). Reference will also be made to a small volume published. by the Universal House of Justice, A Synopsis and Codification of the Laws and Ordinances of the Kitjb‑i‑Aqdas the Most Holy Book of Balid'u'llah (Haifa 1973). These are hereafter cited as H.A., Amr and Synopsis, respectively.
3.	Aqdas, v. (verse) 25 (H., p. 110; E., p.26); H.A., p. 11, Amr, IV, pp.82‑3.
4.	Risala‑yi su'41 wa jawab, in H. A., p. 14.
5.	Aqdas, vv.15‑16 (H., p.109; E., p.24); Amr, IV, p.89. "The other number" would seem to refer to the other 10 rak'as of the Babi salat (see H.A., p.33).
6.	Aqdas, v.22 (H., p.109; E., p.25); Amr, IV, pp.89‑90.
7.	Baha' Allah, letter to Ahmad and letter signed by amanuensis, in Amr, IV,
	pp.90‑91.
8.	Baha' Allah, letter (to Javan‑i Rawhani Dirikhsh) and Risila‑yi su'jl wa
	jawdb, in Amr, IV, p.91.
9.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Mir 'Ali Asghar Usku'i, in Amr, IV, p.92, H.A.,
	pp.32‑3. (Cf. Synopsis, p.58, n.12).
10.	Published in Bah&'All5h, Adi'a‑yi hadrat‑i rnahbCib (Cairo 1339/1920‑21), pp.68‑84 (this edition, however, is not entirely reliable). See also 'Abd alBaha', letter to Mir 'Ali Asghar Usku'i, in Amr, IV, p.92, H.A., p.33.
11.	Baha' Allah, letter to Javan‑i Rawhani Dirikhsh, in Amr, IV, p.91, H.A.,
	p.22. Idern, su'41 wa jawdb, in Amr, IV, p.94, H.A., p.22.
12.	Adra, p.69.
13.	Su'al wa jawab, in Amr, IV, p.96.
14	Letter to Mirza Fadl Allah Mu'awin al‑Tujjar Naraqi, in Amr, IV, p.96, H.A., p.23.
15.	"Lawh‑i sal5it", in Adl'a, p.69. The meaning of "morning" (bukfir), "noon" (zatval), and "evening" (asil) here has been explained by Baha' Allah in the Risala‑yi su'dl wa jaivib as "the time of the dawning of the sun, noon and sunset; the time given for the morning prayer is up to noon, then from noon to sunset, then from sunset to two hours later", in Amr, IV, p.94, ILA, p.18.
16.	Letter to Fad] Allah Mu'awin al‑Tujjar Naraqi, in Amr, IV, p.95, H.A., p.18; letter to Mir 'Ali Asghar Usku'i, in H.A., p.19; letter to Haji Akhund Tafti, in Amr, IV, p.95.
17.	Trans. Shoghi Effendi (London 1957).
18.	See BaW Allah, Salat wa siyarn (Tehran 124 B.E./19674), p.1; idem, Risijla‑yi tasbfh wa tahlil, ed. 'Abd al‑Hamid Ishraq Kh5varl (Tehran 129 B.E./1972‑3), p.11.
19.	"Lawh‑i sal5t", in Adi'a, p.69.
20.	Su'dl wa jaivab, in Amr, IV, p.96; H.A., p.22.
21.	Shoghi Effendi, letter to 'Abd al‑Hamid Ishraq Khavari, 9 November 1933, in H.A., p.24 and IshT5q Kh5vari (ed.), Md'ida‑yi asmin', 10 vols. (Tehran 128 B.E./1971‑2‑129 B.E./1972‑3), III, p.4. The Correct version, which contains an additional phrase, has been published in H.A., p.24, SaIdt wa siy6m, p.14, Tasbih, pp.21‑2.
22.	~Wdl wa javvijb, in Amr, IV*, p.81, H.A., p. 16.
23.	Aqdas, v.49 (Il., p.111; E., p.29); H.A., p.14.
24.	Tasbih, p. 11; trans. Shoghi Effcndi, Prayers and Meditations, p.241.
25.	Aqdas, v.28 (H., p.110; E., p.26); Arnr, IV, p.80, H.A., p.17.
26.	Su'dl iva jawdb, in Amr, IV, p.80, H.A., p. 17.
27.	'Abd al‑Baha', lettcr to Mirza'Ali Asghar Usku'i, in Amr, IV, p.82; H.A.,
	p. 16.
28.	Su'dl wa jaw(lb, in Arnr, IV, p.81, H.A., pp. 15‑16.
29.	lbid, in Amr, IV, p.82, H.A., p.16.
30.	lbid, in Anir, IV, p.80, H.A., p.15.
31.	Aqdas, v.17 (H., p.109; E., p.25); Amr, IV, p.96, H.A., p.19‑20. In the Risdla‑yi sig'dl wa jawdb, 13aha' Allah states that the words "let him stand up and turn unto God" in the long salat refer to the qibla (Amr, IV, p.97; H.A., p.22).
32.	lbid, v.18 (H., p.109; E., p.25); Amr, IV, pp.96‑7, H.A., p.20.
33.	Letter in H.A., p.20.
34.	Both in Arnr, IV, p.97.
35.	Letter in ibid, p.98; also published Ishr5q Kh5vari, Md'ida, 11, p.82.
36.	Letter in Amr, IV, pp.97‑8: "0 Habib. The spot unto which men should turn their faces and the place round which circumambulate the angels on high is the rcspiendcnt tomb. Let no one after this provide any metaphorical interpretation."
37.	Aqdas, v.27 (H., p.110; E., p.26); Amr, IV, p.102, H.A., pp.26‑7.
38.	lbid, v.24 (H., p.100; E., p.25); H.A., p.27.
39.	Ibid, v.26 (H., p.100; E., p.26); Amr, IV, p.99,
40.	Amr, IV, p.99.
41.	Aqdas, v.33 (H., p.110; E., pp.26‑7); Amr, IV, p.100.
42.	lbid, vv.34‑5 (H., p.110; E., p.27); Amr, IV, p.100, H.A., pp.27‑8.

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85

43.	See Amr, IV, p.101, H.A., pp.28‑9.
44.	Amr, IV, pp.101, 102, H.A., p.29.
45.	Amr, IV, pp.101‑2, H.A., pp.29‑30.
46.	Letter to Ustavar Rabbani, in H.A., p.23.
47.	Shoghi Effendi, letter to Ni'mat Allah 'Ala'i, 11 October 1935, in H.A.,
	p.23.
48.	Baha' Allah, quoted in Amr, IV, p.25.
49.	IV, p.73.
50.	See Amr, IV, pp.74‑9; abbreviated form published in Ishr5q Kh5vari, Md'ida, VII, pp.131‑5 (which provides corrections for some faulty transcriptions in Amr).
51.	Aqdas, v.48 (H., p.111; E., p.29); Amr, IV, p.79, H.A., p.55.
52.	Amr, IV, p.81, H.A., pp.55‑6.
53.	Ibid, in Amr, IV, p.80.
54.	Aqdas, v.358 (H., p.126; E., p.63); Amr, IV, pp.23‑4, H.A., p.150.
55.	In Ishraqat, p.187 (cf. p.211).
56.	In Amr, IV, p.24; H.A., p.152. 'Abd al‑Baha' particularly recommended for this purpose the following texts: Lawh‑i lardzdt, Kalimat‑i maknana, Lawh‑i tajall[ydt, Lawh‑i ishraqat, Lawh‑t bishdrat and Al‑kitab al‑aqdas (letters in H.A., p.151). In a letter to Qabil Abada'i, he advises the reading of the Kalimdt‑i ma.knCina (Hidden Words) day and night (IshrAq Khdvari, Md'ida, V, p.199).
57.	Letter, in Amr, IV, p.28.
58.	In Ishr5q Kh5varl, Md'ida, VIII, p.100.
59.	Amr, IV, p.60; Adia, pp.210‑11.
60.	See 'Abd al‑Bah5', Tablets of the Divine Plan (Wilmette 1959), pp. 16, 33, 38,43,48,53; Mundjalha‑yi Hadral‑i'Abdal‑Baha (Bombay 1946), pp.63, 64,6S‑66.
61.	For general examples, see Amr, IV, pp.5&‑62.
62.	See Bahd'i Prayers (Wilmette 1973), p. 129.
63.	Bahd'I Prayers for Special Occasions, new ed. published with Bahd'T Prayers: a selection, new ed. (London 1967), p.47. The original text is published in Tasbih, pp.215‑‑18; printed separately as Lawh‑i Ahmad (n.p. [Langenhai*n, 6ermany] n.d. [198‑1).
64.	Adia, p. 198; trans. Prayers for Special Occasions, pp.49‑50.
65.	In Muntakhabat‑i ayjt az athdr‑i Hadrat‑i Nuqfa‑yi Old (Tehran 134 B.E./
	1977‑8), p.156; trans. Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p.119.
66.	See Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p.119.
67.	See Tasb1h, pp.225‑‑6, Adia, pp.85‑7; trans. Shoghi Effendi, Prayers and
	Medita;ions, pp.200‑1.
68.	See Tasbih, pp.226‑9, Adi'a, pp.87‑91; trans. Shoghi Effendi, Prayers and
	Meditations, pp.177‑8, 190, 191.
69.	See Tasbih, p.235, Adia, p.92; trans. Shoghi Effendi, Prayers and
	Meditations*, p.203.
70.	See Tasbih, p.236, Adi'a, pp.209‑10; part trans. in Shoghi Effendi,
	Prayers*an~ Meditations, p.196.
71.	Original text in Tasbih, pp.219‑24. A fresh, anonymous translation has
	been issued: Qad ihtaraqa TmukhlisCln (The Fire Tablet) (London 1980).

72.	Aqdas, vv.30‑31 (H., p.110; E., p.26); Amr, IV, p.73. Risdla‑yi su'dl wa
	jawdb, in ibid.
73.	See Amr, III, pp.74‑7.
74.	Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p.176.
75.	Idem, in Principles of Bahd'f Administration, 3rd cd. (London 1973), p. 16.
76.	Mazandar5ni, Asrar, 11, p.89‑90.
77.	Ibid, V, p.276.
78.	Amr, IV, pp.68‑9.
79.	Adra, p.192; Tasbh, p.212. The full text of this prayer has been published separately with an English translation: Lawh‑i rnubdrak‑i Anta 7‑KcIft Anta'I‑Shdj~, ma'rCif bi‑Mundjdt‑i shafij'; The Healing Prayer (Langenhain 137 B.E./1980‑81). The translation has also been published separately as The Long Healing Prayer (London 1980).
80.	The original design of this symbol was produced by the Baha'i scribe and calligrapher Mirza Husayn Isfahani Mishkin Oalam. Some older versions carry a redundant madda in the top left corner.
81.	M5zandar5ni, Asrdr, IV, p.343.
82.	See ibid, pp.342‑3, and II, pp.82‑91.
83.	Shoghi Effendi, Directives from the Guardian, compiled by Gertrude
	Garrida (New Delhi 1973), p.52.
84.	Ibid, p.51.
85.	Ibid, p.79.
86.	Letter in H.A., p.37.
87.	Aqdas, v.43 (H., p.110; E., p.27); Amr, IV, p.104, H.A., p.34.
88.	Letter to Zayn a]‑Muqarribin, in Amr, IV, p.105.
89.	Letter in H.A., p.36.
90.	Aqdas, v.47 (H., p.111; E., pp.28‑9); Amr, IV, p.105, H.A., p.45.
91.	Letter to Haji Mirza Aqa Jahrumi, in H.A., p.45.
92.	Aqdas, v.25 (H., p. 110; E., p.26); Amr, IV, pp.82‑3, H.A., p. 11.
93.	'Abd al‑Baba', letter to Mirza Husayn Miyan‑daw‑abi (brother of 'Ali
	Muhammad Varqa), in H.A., pp.12‑13.
94.	A qdas, vv. 33, 44 (H., pp. I 10, 111; E., pp. 26, 28); A mr, I V, pp. 105, 106,
	H.A., p.46.
95.	Su'al wa jawdb, in H.A., p.47; Baha' Allah, letter in ibid, p.48.
96.	Letter to National Assembly of the Baha'is of Iran, in H.A., p.48.
97.	Su'(11 wa jawdb, in H.A., p.46, Amr, IV, p. 107.
98.	Ibid, in H.A., pp.48, 49, Amr, TV, p.108.
99.	Ibid, in H.A., pp.48‑9, Amr, IV, p.108.
100.	Ibid, in H.A., p.49, Amr, IV, p.108.
101.	Ibid, in H.A., p.44, Amr, IV, p.108.
102.	Texts of a number of these may be found in Tasb[h, pp.22‑76. Translations of numbers 1, 2, 3 (i.e. 4), 4 (i.e. 5), and 5 (i.e ' 6) may be found in Prayers and Meditations, pp.225‑30, 59‑65, 298‑300, 109‑112, and 224‑25. Another popular devotion may be found in Adi'a, pp. 110‑14, translated in Bah5' Allah, Gleanings from the Writings of Bahd'u'lldh, trans. Shoghi Effendi (n.p. 1949), pp.298‑300. See also Saldt wa siydm, pp.17‑83.
103.	Text in Tasbil ' i, pp.57‑64, Adi'a, pp.121‑31; trans. Prayers and Medi
	tations, pp.220‑25.

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87

104.	Aqdas, v.68 (H., p.112; E., p.32); Amr, IV, p.109, H.A., p.67.
105.	Ibid, v.307 (H., p.124; E., p.59); Amr, IV, p.136.
106.	Su'dl‑wa jawdb, in Amr, IV, p. 135, H. A., p.68.
107.	Ibid, in Amr, IV, p.135, H.A., pp.67‑8.
108.	Bahd' A115h, "Lawh‑i sirdj", in IshrAq Kh5vad, Md'ida, VII, p.92.
109.	Ishriq KhAvari, Ganj‑i shayigtin (Tehran 124 B.E./1967‑8), pp.82‑3; Shoghi Effencli, God Passes By, p.171. The full text is given in [BahA' A115h], Athdr‑i qalam‑i a7d, IV (Tehran 133 B.E./1976‑7), pp.75‑100. See also part text in Amr, IV, pp.120‑34.
110.	Ishraq Kh5varii, Ganj, p.83; Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, pp.176‑7.
111.	Su'al wa jawab, in H.A., p.68.
112.	Sayyid Muhammad, known as Aqa Mirza Aqa and Nur al‑Din, was a son of Zuhra Bigum, a sister of the Bab's wife, and Hajj Mirza Sayyid Muhammad, an uncle of Aqa Sayyid Muhammad Rida, the Bab's father. He lived for some years in Port Said, but in 1319/1901 'Abd al‑Baha' instructed him to return to Iran to look after the house of the Bab. fie actually returned in 1321/1903. For details on him, see Muhammad 'Ali Fayol, Khtiniddn‑i Afndn (Tehran 127 B.E./1970‑71), pp.197‑216.
113.	Letter quoted ibid, p.208.
114.	For full details, see ibid, pp.170‑71, 204‑12.
115.	See letters in Amr, IV, pp. 136‑7.
116.	Ishr5q Kh5vari, Ganj, pp.83‑4. The full text is printed in Bahd' A115h, Athdr, IV, pp.192‑215. For a variant text of the section from p.204, see Amr, IV, pp.109‑17.
117.	Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p.177.
118.	'Abd al‑Baha', in Amr, IV, pp. 119‑20, 134; H.A., pp.70‑71.
119.	Gleanings, pp. 111‑15; the complete text is in Adi'a, pp.97‑104 (originally
	printed in at‑Kitab al‑inubin (n.p. n.d.), pp.225‑8).
120.	Fayol, ~Iaydt‑i Hadrat‑i 'Abd al‑BahJ' (Tehran 128 B.E./1971‑2), pp.331
	4.
121.	See Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, pp.356‑60.
122.	Letter in Synopsis, p.61.
123.	On this term, see MacEoin,'Nakd al‑mithak', Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd
	ed., VII, p.921.
124.	For details of this event and its significance in Baha'i belief, see Shoghi
	Effencli, God Passes By, pp.273‑8.
125.	Aqdas, v.307 (If., p.124; E., p.59); Amr, IV, p.136, H.A., p.246.
126.	Letter quoted in Amr, IV, p.142.
127.	For details of most of these developments, see Shoghi Effendi, Baha'i Holy Places at the World Centre, ed. The Universal House of Justice (Haifa 1968); Ugo Giachery, Shoghi Effendi ‑ Recollections (Oxford 1973).
128.	Shoghi Effendi, Citadel of Faith: Messages to Americall 947‑1957 (Wil
	mette 1965), pp.95‑6.
129.	On these conditions, see Amr, IV, pp.137‑41.
130.	The ziyaratnama for the Bab and Baha' Allah contains excerpts from three tablets of Baha' Allah: (1) A tablet to Aqa Baba; (2) A tablet to an unnamed individual, printed in al‑KitJb al‑mubin, p.327; and (3) A tablet for the wife of the Bab, Khadija Bigum. The text is given in Adia, pp.92‑7. A

translation appears in Bah5' A115h, Prayers and Meditations, pp.238‑40. The ziyaratnama for 'Abd al‑Baha' appears in his Mundjdt, pp.72‑3, translated in BahaY Prayers, pp.137‑8. See also Shoghi Effendi, God Passes By, p.222.
131.	'Abd al‑Baha', statement in Ishrdq Kh5vari, MJ'ida, 11, pAl.
132.	L,etter in ibid, p.88.
133.	Aqdas, vv.178‑9 (if., p.118; E., pp.44‑5); Amr, III, p.302.
134.	Ibid, v. 112 (H., p. 114; E., p. 37); H. A., p. 200.
135.	Ibid, v.173 (H., p.117; E., p.44).
136.	Ibid, v.177 (H., p.118; E., p.44).
137.	IV, pp.73‑4.
138.	Shoghi Effendi, letter in H.A., p.183.
139.	Letter in Amr, III, p.62.
140.	Letter in ibid, p.61.
141.	Letter in ibid, p.62.
142.	Letter in ibid.
143.	Text printed in Tasb'h, pp.237‑9; trans. Bahd'I Prayers, pp.24‑6.
144.	Aqdas, v.301 (if., pp.123‑4; E., p.58); Amr, IV, p.200, H.A., p.135.
145.	Aqdas, v.292 (If., p.123; F., p.57); Arnr, IV, p.199.
146.	Aqdas, vv.293‑4 (H., p.123; E., pp.57‑8).
147.	Aqdas, v.299 (H., p.123; E., p.58); Amr, IV, pp. 199‑200, H.A., p.136.
148.	Bah5' A115h, Su'dl wa jawab, in Amr, IV, p.2(X), H. A., p. 136.
149.	Aqdas, v.292 (H., p.123; E., p.57); Amr, IV, p.199, H.A., p.141.
150.	Ibid, v.302 (H., p. 124; E., p.58); Amr, IV, p.201, H.A., pp. 141‑2.
151.	Su'dl wa jaivab, in Amr, IV, p.202, H.A., p.142.
152.	'Abd al‑Bah5'. "Lawh‑i ism AllAh", in Amr, IV, p.203, H.A., p.145.
153.	Shoghi Effendi, letter to Aqa Jamshid Rustam Jamshidi, in H. A., p. 145.
154.	See instructions on this from 'Abd al‑Baha' and Shoghi Effendi in Anir,
	IV, pp.202‑3, H.A., pp.142‑5.
155.	Aqdas, v.23 (11., p.110; E., p.25); Amr, IV, p.103, H.A., p.137.
156.	"Lawh‑i salit‑i mayyit", in Anzr, IV, pp. 102‑3, H.A., pp.138, 139, TasbTh, pp.239‑41 (and note correction sheet to p.241). A translation is availabic in Prayers and Meditations, pp. 189‑9.
157.	Aqdas, v.23 (H., p.110; E., p.25); Amr, IV, pp.1034, H.A., p.137.
158.	"Lawh‑i ism A115h", in Amr, IV, p.104, H.A., p.140.
159.	Letter to Jaimshid Rustam Jamshidi, in H.A., p.140.
160.	Baha' Allah, Su'tjl wa jawdb, in Amr, IV, p. 104, H.A., p. 140.
161.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter in Amr, IV, pp.204‑5; Shoghi Effendi, in Principles
	of Bahd'i A dminstration, p. 15.
162.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Haji Mirza Muhammad Taqi Tabasi, in Amr, IV,
	p.205.
163.	Shoghi Effendi, letter in Amr, TV, p.204.
164.	Aqdas, v.107 (H., p.114; E., p.36); H.A., p.145.
165.	Shoghi Effendi, letter to 'Ali Akbar Furutan, in H.A., p.147.
166.	On the holding of such gatherings, see 'Abd a]‑Baha', letter to members 
of
	Mahfil‑i Khidmat, Tehran, in H.A., p.146.
167.	Text in Adi'a, pp.217‑85, Tasbih, pp.242‑70. See also 'Abd al‑Baha' in
	Ishr5q Kh5var‑J, Md'ida, 11, p.12.

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89

168.	In Majma'a‑yi alwdh, p.123.
169.	Letter in H.A., p.348; Ishr5q Kh5varf, Md'ida, II, p.88.
170.	Letter to Baha'is of Qum, in Ishr5q Kh1varl, Md'ida, V, p.227.
171.	Shoghi Effendi, Directives, p.79.
172.	Aqdas, v.143 (H., p.116; E., p.40); Amr, IV, p.160, H.A., p.159.
173.	Su'dl wa jawab, in Amr, IV, p. 163, H.A., p. 162.
174.	Ibid, in Amr, IV, p.164.
175.	Aqdas, v.147 (H., p.116; E., p.41); Amr, IV, p.167, H.A., p.163; "Lawh‑i Zayn al‑Muqarribin", in H.A., p.164; Su'al wajawab, in Amr, IV, pp. 168, H.A., p.164.
176.	Aqdas, v.143 (H., p.116; E., p.40); Amr, IV, p.173, H.A., p.176.
177.	Letter in Amr, IV, p.174.
178.	Letter in ibid, p.175.
179.	Letter to Mrs Rosenberg, in H.A., p.176. It is worth remarking that this same argument has been used by Muslim apologists with reference to the injunction of Qur'an 4:3. On the latter, Rodinson, Mohammad (London 1973), p.232, sensibly remarks that "what we see here is a typical childish example of apologetic reasoning which, as usual, runs completely counter to the historical spirit".
180.	Letter to 'Ali Akbar Furutan, in H.A., p.177. For fuller details on this
	subject, see ibid, pp.176‑7, Amr, IV, pp.173‑9.
181.	Su'al wa jaw4b, in Amr, IV, p. 169, H.A., p. 165.
182.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter in H.A., p.166; letter to Mirza 'Abd al‑Majid Furughi, inAmr, IV, p.171, H.A., p.166; letterto Fa'iza Khanum, inAmr, IV, pp.169‑70, H.A., pp.166‑7.
183.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Fa'iza Khanum, in Amr, IV, p.170, H.A., p.167.
184.	"Lawh‑i nik5h", in Amr, IV, p.157, H.A., p.172; see also almost identical
	passage from Su'iál wa jawilb, in Amr, IV, p. 158.
185.	See H.A., p.173: the masculine form is given as radan and the feminine as
	rd4iydt; cf. above, chapter 2, note 208, and Amr, IV, pp. 158‑9.
186.	Baha' Allah, letter to 'Ali Qabl Akbar, in H. A., p. 172. For the text of the khutba, see Amr, IV, pp.157‑8, Tasbfh, pp.205‑6. For a translation, see Baha'f Prayers, pp. 186‑7.
187.	The Englishotext only of this talk is extant. It was first printed in Star of the
	West 11/i (21 March 1920), pp.20‑21.
188.	Aqdas, w.260‑62 (H., p.122; E., p.54); Amr, IV, pp.5‑6, H.A., p.404.
189.	Ibid, vv.258, 263 (H., p.122; E., p.54); Amr, IV, pp.6‑7, H.A., p.359.
190.	Ibid, v.258 (H., p.122; E., p.54); Amr, IV, p.7, H.A., p.369.
191.	Ibid, v.259 (H., p.122; E., p.54); Amr, IV, p.10, H.A., p.387.
192.	Letter to Mirza Muhammad Husayn ibn Mirza Ahmad 'Ali Nayrizi, in
	Amr, IV, p.11, H.A., p.356.
193.	Ibid, in Amr, IV, p.11 only.
194.	'Abd al‑Baha' and Shoghi Effendi, letters in Amr, IV, pp.11‑15, H.A.,
	pp.356‑9.
195. Su'al wa jawjb, in Amr, IV, p.6.
196.	Baha' Allah, letter to Mir Muhammad Husayn Beg Bushru'i, in H.A.,
	p.358; Su'dl wa jawdb, in ibid, p.359; letter in Amr, IV, pp.8‑9.
197.	Shoghi Effendi, in Principles of Bahd'i Administration, p.56.

198.	B. F., 2:7 (p. 30).
199.	Shoghi Effcndi, in Principles of Bahj'f Administration, p.56.
200.	Letter in Makdtfb‑i'Abd al‑Bahd', II (Cairo 1330/1912), pp. 137‑8, in Amr,
	IV, pp.7‑8.
201.	Su'dl wa jawdb, in Amr, IV, p.10, H.A., p.387; idem, Lawh‑i Zayn al
	Muqarribin, in H.A., p.387.
202.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Mirza Qabil Abada'i, in Amr, IV, p.15.
203.	Shoghi Effendi, in Principles, p.56.
204.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Mirza Qabil Abada'i, in Amr, IV, p.15. The date 28 Sha'ban 1266/9 July 1850 for the Bab's martyrdom is given by Baha'i histories. Several other sources give the previous day, see Momen, Bdbi and Bahd" Religions, p.78, fn.
205.	Shoghi Effendi, in Principles, p.56.
206.	Hasan Balyuzi, 'Abd 'ul‑Bahd' (London 1971), p.523; 'Abd al‑Baha',
	letter in Amr, IV, pp.16‑17; Shoghi Effendi, letter in ibid, p.18.
207.	Shoghi Effendi, in Principles, p.56.
208.	Idem, letter in Amr, IV, p.18.
209.	Baha' Allah, letter in Amr, IV, p.19.
210.	Shoghi Effendi, letter to Sarkhab Bas Aftabi, in H.A., p.425.
211.	Text in Ishraq Kh5vari (ed.), Ayydm‑i tis'a, 5th ed. (Tehran 129 B.E./
	1972‑3), pp. 12‑15.
212.	Text in ibid, pp.16‑20.
213.	Texts in ibid, pp.92‑9, 100‑6, 180‑83.
214.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Ustad 'Ali Fakhkhar, in Amr, IV, p.20, H.A.,
	p.427.
215.	Aqdas, v.134 (H., p.115; E., p.39); Amr, 111, p.138, H.A., p.156.
216.	Su'al wa jawdb, in Amr, III, p. 138, H.A., pp. 156‑7.
217.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Abu 'I‑Qasim Gulistana, in Amr, III, pp.138‑9,
	H.A., p.157.
218.	'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Khudadad and Baha'is of Khurasan, in H.A.,
	pp. 157‑8.
219.	See, for example, 'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Mason Remcy, in Amr, IV,
	p. 139.
220.	National Assembly of the Baha'is of the British Isles, statement in
	Principles of Bahd'i Administration, p.52.
221.	Universal House of Justice, letter to the National Spiritual Assembly of the
	Baha'is of the British Isles, in ibid, p.56.
222.	Aqdas, v.67 (H., p.112; E., p.32); Amr, IV, p.147; H.A., p.230. On this subject, see MacEoin, Mashrik al‑adhk5r, Encyclopaedia of Islam, 2nd ed., VI, p.720.
223.	lbid, v.267 (H., p.122; E., p.55); Amr, IV, p.147; H.A., pp~230‑31.
224.	Ibid, v.266 (H., p.122; E., p.55); Amr, IV, p.26, H.A., p.188.
225.	Su'al wa javvdb, in Amr, IV, pp.26‑7, H.A., p. 188.
226.	Letter to Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of Bushruya, in H.A., p.231.
227.	Shoghi Effendi, Bahd" Administration, 5th revised ed. (New York 1945,
	Wilmette 1960), p.185.
228.	Aqdas, v.67 (H., p.112; E., p.32); Amr, IV, p.147, H.A., p.230.
229.	lbid, v.367 (H., p.126; E., pp.64‑‑5); H.A., p.233.

90

230.	'Abd a[‑Baha', letter in Amr, IV, pp.148‑9. A brief account of 19thcentury Iranian practice is given in R. Jackson Armstrong‑Ingram, Music, Devotions, and Mashriqu'l‑Adhkir, Studies in Babi and Baha'i History 4 (Los Angeles 1988), pp.9‑10 *
231.	On the continuity between Islamic and Baha'i devotional forms, see ibid, pp.4‑5.
232.	Ibid deals with this topic at length.
233.	E. G. Browne (trans. and ed.), ['Abd al‑Baha'] A Traveller's Narrative written to illustrate the Episode of the Bab (Cambridge 1891), pp.xxxi, xxxiv.
234.	Aqdas, vv.381‑2 (H., p.127; E., p.66); Amr, III, p.69, H.A., p.191.
235.	"Lawh‑i bishirit", in Majrna'a‑yi alwah, p. 119.
236.	Letter in Alwah‑i rnubdraka‑yi Hadrat‑i Bahd'Alldh ... shdmil‑i iqfiddrdt wa chand lawh digar (n.p. n.d.), pp.28‑9; also in Amr, III, p.70, H.A., P. 191.
237.	Aqdas, vv.108‑9 (H., p.114; E., p.36) H.A., p.313.
238.	Browne, Traveller's Narrative, pp.xxxi, xxxiv; idem, the Babis of Persia. 1. Sketch of their History, and Personal Experiences amongst them, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 21 (1889), pp.499‑500,
239.	Letter in Amr, III, p.341.
240.	Letter in ibid, p.342.
241.	For some observations on the situation in a part of India, see William Garlington, The Baha'i Faith in Malwa, in G. A. Oddie (ed.), Religion in South Asia (New Delhi 1977), pp. 101‑17. ". . . in the 'model villages' visited by the writer, while most declarants adhered to Baha'i social norms within the aibove mentioned institutions, they also functioned within the Hindu ritual idiom ‑they took part in caste based worship, festivals and rites of passage, adhered to traditional patterns of dining, and married exclusively within their own castes" (p. 110). See also p. 113.
242.	There is some suggestion of a recent trend towards greater ritualism in Armstrong‑Ingram, Music.

Appendices

93

I	INSTRUCTIONS BY THE BAB FOR THE SPIRITUAL SEEKER
If you should yearn to travel unto God in the land of the Red Sanddune, in the company of the leaders of men (al‑nuqabá'), then you must journey on this most mighty Path, the Light of God in the heavens and on earth, unto whom all that are in the heavens and on earth have bowed down, and unto whom they show obedience . . .
After you have completed the noon prayer, recite the word of divine unity [i.e. there is no god but God] 14 times. Pay close attention to your condition wherever you may be, and do not busy yourself with anything whatsoever that may veil you from the mention of God (dhikr Allah).' Know that the greatest of devotions is, in the sight of your Lord, no more than a pause in recitation when considered in the light of actual union with Him. These are God's commands unto them that travel within this Land. He who abandons God's commands shall never be able to find a way unto God . . .
When the white stripe [of dawn] shines forth above the black horizon, be assured that the light of your existence has risen from the Morning of Eternity (~ubh al‑azal). Wherefore, pray the morning prayer upon the temple of your love and during the first prostration recite the Súra alFajr and, during the second, al‑Kawthar. Be careful that, in the course of your prayer, you do not go out from the face of your Lord: whoever goes out from the prayer shall take the form of a donkey. As you go up (? fmi'rájika), do not draw attention to anything but God; pointing out anything but God after you have recited the takbir would bring a charge of deceit against your soul. Fear God and do not include anyone else in your worship of your Lord.
When you have finished [the prayer], sit in the temple of prophethood [a posture], facing the spot where the sun is rising, for the sustenance of men's hearts is divided out at that hour; he who remains asleep shall be deprived of his share. After the dawn prayer, read from the Ou'ran in the accent of its revelation, in a spirit of sadness and tranquillity . . .
Pay heed to the prayers that follow Ithe salat], that are concealed by the truth, and recite the morning prayer (Kalimat al‑sabáh) that has been revealed from the tongue of 'Ali2 ...
When the sun has risen, rise up from your seat and go with a loving face to your family and to those of your friends who have come to meet with you, and speak with them with kindness and beauty ...
	From the onset of legal maturity, perform a fast according to the
decree of your Lord every month for a period of ten days until you reach
the age of 30. And when you have attained that age, fast for half the
month until you reach the age of 40, after which you should fast for
three days every month: the fifth day from 20 and the fourth from the
		3
middle. [Continue thus] gntil you reach the age of 50: at this point, you

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95

ought not to fast, with the exception of what God has commanded for you in the sacred month, the month of Ramadan, as has been revealed in the Qur'an . . .
As regards your drink, watch carefully and take, by the power and strength of God [upon?] the hands of your soul, at the start of each day a little mastic (kundur: frankincense, gum mastic or juniper gum) and some cloves (qaranful), with an equal amount of pure sugar, and drink a cup of water in which there has been boiled a piece of white paper of Chinese origin. To drink this is according to the ways of nature: it attracts moisture, closes the paths of allusion (subúl al‑ishára), and enlivens the one who drinks it through meeting with the people of truth; in it there are innumerable benefits for whosoever has openly borne witness to the path of explanation (sab'l al‑bayán). If you desire more than a cup, drink only one, for God loves singularity in all conditions. If you like, you may drink some milk along with it, provided it is not cold. Thus has God commanded you concerning what you should drink in the hour following the rising of the sun. Do not drink more than what I have commanded you, nor take anything after it, unless it be light sweets, for the latter are permissible to you under all circumstances. Busy yourself with the condition which has been written down by God.
When sunset approaches, free yourself for your Lord's affair and sleep for an hour before the sun sets. When you rise from sleep . . . [text unclear], and then purify your body with water and perfume it as far as you are able, then await the call of your Lord.
When the sun has set, magnify God your Lord seven times and say the following words: "Praise be to God and glory be to God, He Who has never taken a companion nor a son, He Who has no partner in His dominion, for Whom there is no associate in ignominy." Magnify Him saying Allahu akbar, and after that recite 12 times the Siúra al‑Tawhid. Then perform works of supererogation. For God has promised to him that does such deeds the most great word [kahmat abakbar ‑ sicl. Should the servant behold the bounty of his Lord, he shall be in the station of supererogation (maqám al‑nawáfil): he shall hear with the ear of his Lord, he shall speak with his Lord's tongue, he shall see with his Lord's eyes, and when he gives it shall be as if the hand of his Lord were giving (~ukmu yadihi hukmu 'atá'ihi). Whenever he is silent, He shall answer him in secret at once. Fear not, for you are among them that have been brought near to God.
When you have completed these supererogatory works, pray the noon prayer upon the dawning‑place of revelation on the horizon of Sinai. Halt there, for it is upon that spot that your Lord is worshipped. Halt and give ear to His voice. Praised be he, sanctified be he, Lord of the angels and the spirit. Bear witness to His beauty in the signs of your ascent (f'áyát mi'rájika) and do not deprive yourself of your share in the

pleasure of mentioning Him and coming near to Him. ~ [reward?] has been written down for them that bow down at the station of nearness to your Lord.
	When you have completed the prayer, render praise to God your
	Lord, with the Prayer of the Great One (7'asb'l * i al‑Kubra), Faitiniat tile
	Radiant 4 and then recite the Prayer of Praise (Dii'á al‑talt?pz'(1), v,.‑hicti
5
has been sent down in the Sahifa. Then stand at once and perform for the sake of God the supererogatory acts of the evening, together with the evening prayer. And observe the laws of the shari'a in all that you do, lest so much as an atom of God's bounties escape you.
	And when you have completed your Lord's command, bow yourself
down before God for a long time, then return home. T'hen eat of God's
bounties after the evening prayer: seven portions, if you are atble, but
otherwise 14 portions ‑ but eat no more thain thatt in the paths of your
journey unto God, unless you know that it will not harm your spirit.
Wherefore, watch over yourself in what you catt, aind aipproaicil not the
tree of wliatt is forbidden (shajarat al‑I ' iarátii) or wliattever resellibles it.
Then sit in your house upon your couch, on tile right side, airld perforni
in the path of eating as we have set out. And say "in the Name of God"
when you begin and sit in the temple of unity, leaning on your left hand.
Do not eat alone, and watch over the person seated beside you. Eatt
according to the form of your love before the face of God, as thougli you
were seated as a messenger before God Himself. Begin with salted food
and finish with sweet, praising God inwardly and outwardly in every
[possible] manner. And rest wiiile you are eating, as though you were ill
paradise and the food were God's bounty. Thus hais God explatitic(i I lis
verses in His Book, that men may be guided to the meetitig with I liiii.
When you haive finished, pick your teeth and then brush them with a smaill twig. 'I"Iien busy yourself with thait which God lias writtcn down for you. Do not iieglect any of God's decrees under aiiiy eirctinistaitices. Whatever befalls you in any situation is a decree from your Lord that is binding on you. Associatte no one with God in your worship of Him, atild if you haive aiii oecupatioii, feair God in aill you do (f' sirátika). It is obligatory for aill those engaged in business to study religious jurisprudence; it is forbidden for those who believe in God to engage in trade unless they have a knowledge of the law.
	Know that the greatest perfection in the eyes of your Lord is
knowledge of religious law (al‑faqálza fi 'I‑dn) and patience in vicissi
tudes and the cailculation of one's livelihood. Thus has God explatined
His signs (áyátahii) that men may be sure of the truth of God's verses
(á ' vát Alláli). If you liaive busied yourself with ttiait which God liais
decreed for you, rest from your labours ten minutes bcfore stitiset 
ill
order to free yourself for your meeting with your Lord. Perform the
duties of the night and its acts of supererogation according to the 
decree

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of the Family of God [i.e. the Imams]. And when you come down from your rising up (mi'rajika), drink sugared water with fruit juice, as much as you want. Then read from the book of the friends whatever you wish; in it there are gates of good deeds that will open only through what is sent down to you by God's decree. But do not read for more than an hour.
And when three hours of the night have passed, go for your meal and eat 14 portions in tranquillity and dignity, lest you fail to take pleasure in its benefits. When you have finished eating, lie down for an hour after per‑forming your ablutions (? sá'atan bi 'l‑wudú'); make use of perfume and rest in the manner God has prescribed for you. Do not rest alone, for God does not desire such a state for you. If you should lie alone, in spite of being able to do otherwise, you will have disbelieved in your Lord and your sin will be unequalled. Observe God's decree concerning women, for they are leaves of the Tree of Sinai. Do not harm them for so much as the blink of an eye, for, according to the decree of the Book, they are not, in the eyes of God, as men think them to be. God is sufficient for you, inwardly and outwardly, as a witness.
Rest for one hour on your couch, for this is an established right for everyone. Then rest from the beginning of the fifth hour until the end of the eighth. And when a third of the night remains, rise up through God's strength and might and clean yourself for the sake of God, your Lord, in spirit and fragrance, and take advantage of the days of meeting with Him. Then busy yourself with His decree concerning the night prayer: it may be that your Lord shall send upon you a praiseworthy rank.
Divide the night into three: one‑third for [reading] verses, 6 and onethird for rest before God, gazing towards the beauty of His effulgence, and one‑third for taking account of your soul, according to what you have done from dawn until this moment. Take your soul to account, for God has made you a'judge and reckoner over yourself on His behalf. This is God's decree unto the people of the Path (Ii 'I‑sálikn) in all circumstances. Whoever transgresses the limits God has laid down shall not find God faithful to him on the Day of Judgement. This is the Path of God in the heavens and the earth. Cling unto His cord, and know that God is aware of the secrets of the heavens and the earth. God is a sufficient witness and help unto His servants.
The Remembrance [dhikr, i.e. the Bab] of the Name of your Lord has set out the decrees for them that travel on the Path in this book which has been written for you.
	(qahffa bayna 'I‑haramayn,
CUL Or. Ms. 943, pp.66‑84, with omissions)

NOTES
I.	This is ambiguous. The term Dhikr Alldh was one of the early titles of the
	Bab.
2.	A well‑known morning prayer (Du'd al‑sabah) on which the Bab later wrote
	a commentary.
3.	The text is garbled at this point.
4.	Possibly a reference to a prayer of the Bab's, known as the Tasbfh ratima.
5.	Probably the first prayer in the Shi'i collection known as al4ahf
fa alSajjddiyya, attributed to the fourth Imam.
6.	Sentence to here appears corrupt.

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98
II TABLES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE 19 HAYAKIL The following tables set out the names and figures of the 19 hayakil.
(Kitáb‑i panj sha'n, pp.432‑4)
99

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to
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1(1
III	TABLET OF THE BAB ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A CIRCULAR
TALISMAN (DA'IRA) OF SEVEN CIRCLES
When thou art in need or desirest that a certain one may be raised to life among ttie people of truth [i.e. be converted to Babism I, inscribe upon at sheet of white paper seven circles, concentric and equidistant, with black, gold or yellow ink. Divide this into 19 sections, none less in size than any other, be it even by as much as a hairsbreadth. This should be written with the same ink. After this, write in the most beautiful script, in the naskh style, within the outer circle, 19 exalted words, beginning at "God, there is no God but Him, the Living, the Self‑Subsisting" to "and He is the Exalted, the Great" [i.e. the "Throne verse" ‑ Qur'an 2:2551. Then, in the second circle, write the luminous naimes thait form the words of the bisin Allah [i.e. the phrase bism Alldh al‑rahi~iáti al‑ralYin I I these being birr [i.e. a word beginning with "b"], salátii, malik, Alláli, latif, latf, hibat Alláh, then Alláh then latif, then rahniáti, then hátiiid, then nial zttitúd, then nfir, ttien Alldh, then lat'f, ttien ral.iinz, tticii ial'i~i, then yad Alláh, then ritaq.yiúd. 'I'hen add to the beginning of tlicse nanies the number of their mystery, which is what is in the third circle in the form of the Greatest Name 19 times [i.e. 19 reproductions of the symbol
1. Then, in the fourth circle, the letters of creation, which we shall mention, God willing, in their haykal. These are the following devices:

Then, in the fifth, the letters of the bism Allah, in their well‑known shape [i.e. the 19 letters of bisin Allah al‑rahman al‑rahim written separatcly]. 'I'lien, in the sixth, the letters of the six naimes, the number of which is 19; these are the names of God the Single (al‑jard), the Living (al‑hayy), the Self‑Subsisting (al‑qayyum), the Wise [al‑hak'tnj [this ought to read al‑hakam], the Judge, as later in this work: otherwise, the number of lctters would be 201, the Just (al‑'adl), the Holy (at‑quddus), written separately. Then, in the seventh circle, ttie letters of any verse of the Qur'an, the meanings of which are similar to what you have desired. I have chosen [these] for whosoever wishes to find a path to the Lord of the Throne. Thus, if you wish for the appearance of what God has bestowed upon you, write down "Praise be to God, Lord of the Worlds" (Qur'an 1:2). Then, for release from any difficulty, "Thee do we worship and to Thee we turn for assistance"

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(Qur'an 1:5). Then, to seek guidance, "Guide us on the right path" (Qur'an 1:6). Then, for glory: "He glorifies whom He wills and makes abased whom He wills" (Qur'an 3:26). Then, for approaching whomever you may wish: "The faces humbled themselves before the Living, the Self‑Subsistent" (Qur'an 20:111). Then, for deriving benefit from whomever you love, "Do good, then, as God has done good unto you" (Qur'an 28:77). Then, in time of trouble: "God shall make ease after hardship" (Qur'an 65:7). Then, for the destruction of the enemy, on the condition of the good‑pleasure of God and His decree: "And death shall come to him from every place" (Our'an 14:17). Then, for a severe calamity: "There befell them affliction and distress" (Qur'an 2:214). Then, for disunity among the people of oppression and enmity: "He said, this is the parting between me and you" (Qur'an 18:78). Then, for the elevation of station: "Exalted be God, the King, the True One" (Qur'an 20:114 [the present text adds the word mubn, which is not in the Qur'an and is unnecessary for the required number of letters]). Then, to request mercy: "Verily, God is Forgiving, Merciful" (Qur'an 4:23, 106, 129; 33:24 [the present text adds at the beginning the letter wáw "and", which occurs in no Qur'anic version and is unnecessary for the required number of letters]). Then, to request wisdom: "Verily, God is Mighty, Wise" (Qur'an 4:56) [the present text adds wáw to the beginning, which is not in the Qur'an and is not required for the correct number of letters]). Then, for the removal of sadness: "The greatest terror shall not sadden them" (Qur'an 21:103). Then, for the provision of sustenance: "Happy with what God has given them of His bounty" (Our'an 3:170 [this sentence contains 23 letters, some of which may be written together in a single wáhid]). Then, for victory: "Verily, We have opened to you a manifest victory" (Qur'an 48:1). Then, for victory over the enemy: "That God may assist you in a mighty victory" (Qur'an 48:3). Then, for the overcoming of those who are hostile: "Verily, Our host shall conquer them" (Qur'an 37:173). Then, to request knowledge and attainment to the essence [centre] of understanding: "And He shall teach you the book and the wisdom" (Our'an 2:151). Then, for all the blessings of this world and the degrees of the next, great and small, hidden and manifest, and to request a son: "And your Lord shall give unto you and you shall be content" (Qur'an 93:5).
These are 19 verses [there are actually 20], according to the tradition of the bism Allah: "There are names before the face of God for whatever God has willed". It is incumbent on the believer to read all of these during his life, that God may cause him to attain to the summit of the faith and of the world, through His grace ‑ verily, He is the Powerful, the Lofty, the Merciful, the Gracious. The conditions for using it are these: when you desire to use it, you should begin on the eleventh day of any month, make the circle an indication of your

preservation of it in your goodness (?), then read after every obligatory prayer (kull salát al‑rnafrúda ‑ sic.) the six names, by saying "In the name of Go~, the Mercifiii, the Compassionate: One, Living, SelfSubsistent, Judge, Just, Holy", then the verse you have written in the seventh circle as being related to your purpose ‑ if you wish for the appearance of bounties, just as I have indicated to you: "Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds" 19 times, no more, no less. Then, when you have finished, say: "Lord, bless Muhammad and the Family of Muhammad [i.e. Fatima and the 12 Imams] and the shi'a of Muhammad, tiieii hold open your two palms and face the mid‑point of the heavens, that is, the heavens of grace, and say: "In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. 0 God, I beseech Thee by the [letter] ftá' of alfardániyya (singleness) and the rá'of al‑rubúbiyya (lordship) and the dál of dawám al‑da),mútna (the duration of perpetuity) and the há' of al‑hayát al‑sarnzadiyya (eternal life) and the yá of yanáb" al‑hikma (the springs of wisdom) and the qáf of al‑qudra (might) and the yá' of al‑yaqFn (certitude) and the wáw of al‑wtijiúd (existence) and the tnm of al‑mulk (dominion) and the 'ayn of al‑'itiáya (bounty) and the dál of al‑dalála (guidance) and the 1ám of at‑lutf (graciousness) and the qáf of al‑qayyúin (the Self‑Subsisting) and the dál of al‑dayyán (the Judge) and the wáw of al‑wiláya (sovereignty; or al‑waláiya guardianship) and the sn of al‑sak'tia (peace, immanence of God = Hebr. shekina ‑ these initial letters are the letters forming the six names given above) to bless Muhammad and the Family of Muhammad and the shi'a of Muhammad, and to fulfil my need."
Then say: "I have adjured you, 0 holy and luminous spirits, servants of these mighty letters and verses and of these noble and honoured names to answer my request and confirm my oath aiid fulfil my need." Then make mention of your need and say: "By the truth of the light of the face of God, the Mighty, the Most Great, and His greatness and His might over you, since those who make descriptions cannot describe His essence, and by His right over you and by Ilis saitictity and power with regard to you, niaiy God bless you." And they sliaill saiy: "We liaive liealrd and obeyed your pardon, 0 Lord; in Thee is our end, sufficient for us. What an excellent guardian is He, what an excellent Lord, and what an excellent Succourer. No strength nor power is there save in God, the Exalted, the Mighty. May God bless Muhammad and his Family and their goodly shi'a."
No one shall do this but shall attain his desire and reach his aim, nor shall his prayer be rejected ‑ this is a fixed decree and I am its guarantor. It shall be better for all that possess it than to possess the east of the world and the west thereof. Nor shall this be hard for God. It is a right of mine, by the greatest of rights, over those that follow that shining light that they should make it and should perform what I have

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commanded them and never neglect it for a day or a night. In it are concealed the lights of holiness, and in it are hidden the lights of fellowship, and in it are revealed the manifestations of the Holy One . . .
And it is correct to write in the centre of the seventh circle that square figure and to fi11 its interior with those written figures, as follows: 1114, the shape of this in every house (bayl), with the points necessary in the geometrical figures. That is a mystery, and the seven circles are together the light of the Night of Decree [i.e. night of 26‑27 Ramadan], for the geometry of the shape of the Decree is this: 304; and when you put the two of them [i.e. the 3 and 4] together, there appears the number seven. What is written there is what has been decreed here. And these are the gates of all good . . . for the seven letters have been sent down in the four words [? reference to his name 'Ali Muhammad, composed of seven letters, wherefore he refers to himself elsewhere as dhát‑i hurúf al‑sab'; what the "four words" refer to is not clear] and when you join it there appears the number of the word huwa ["he" = 11 = 7+41, for that is the mention of the seal of the Point from the beginning of its mystery in the letters of the bism Allah until the end of its descent unto its centre, which is the Point itself . . . And I do not count any man among my followers (sh"ati) unless he is in its goodness, as I have commanded him to be, for he that neglects it has neglected all that is good and he that performs it has performed all that is good and is, in my sight, more precious than red sulphur or yellow light . . . Send it in all directions to your brethren and friends that none may be left, whether young or old, man or woman, but shall enter beneath this mercy . . . it is, truly, an amulet from our decree unto our shi'a, to protect them from every evil and harm and to bring them unto every good thing and blessing. Whoever takes hold of it has taken hold of a great portion and a greater share; this, indeed, is the mighty victory.
(Mázandaráni, Asrár, IV, pp.115‑20)

IV	PORTION OF A ZIYARATNAMA FOR MULLA MUHAMMAD
4 ALI	BARFURUSHI QUDDUS, WRIT‑FEN BY THE BAB
Tablet of visitation for the martyrs, on them be peace, who have sacrificed themselves for the Last Name of God, Ouddus, Quddus, Quddus. ["T'he Last Name of God" ‑ ism Alláh al‑ákhir ‑ was a title of Mulla Muhammad 'Ali Barfurushi.]
In the name of God, the Most Inaccessible, the Most Holy. Holy, holy, holy (quddús, quddús, quddús). The glory from God, no other god is there but He, rest upon thy heart and the heart of whomsoever is in thy heart, and upon thy spirit and the spirit of whomsoever is in thy spirit, and upon thy soul and whomsoever is in thy soul, and upon thy body and whomsoever is in thy body. I'hen, the exatltattioii front God rest upon thy heart and the heart of whomsoever hath been created from the light of thy praise, and upon thy spirit and whomsoever hath been created from the spirit of thy benediction, and upon thy soul and whomsoever hath been created from the soul of thy unification (fawhid ‑ the declaration of God's unity), and upon ttiy body and whoiiisoev,er hath been created from the light of thy glorification. Thou hast been raised up, nor is there above thee anyone possessed of exaltation like unto thee; thou hast come near, nor is there anyone possessed of proximity like unto thine. All created things have given praise in unison out of the essence of thy praise, and all atoms have rendered glorification out of the camphor of thy glorification, and all the psychic entities have extolled the oneness of God in unison out of the substance of thine extolling of His unity, and all the individual realities have lauded the greatness of God in unison out of the absolute reality of thy glorification of His greatness. All render praise unto God through thee, and all sanctify God through thee, and all extol God's singleness through thee, and all magnify God through thee. So great hath been thine affliction that the afflictions of all created things are cut off from any connection with it; the calamity that hath overwhelmed thee hath reache(i so liigii at station that no other cailaimity of any creaited tliiiig rnaiy be nietitiolic(i ill the same breath as it. By thy glory, there is nothing in existence apart from God that weepeth not sore over thee, that is not established under thy shadow, that doth not praise God with the praise thou didst offer, that doth not sanctify His iiame with the sanctification thou didst render, that cloth not extol the unity of God with the praise of His unity that thou didst utter, and that doth not magnify God with the magnification whereby thou didst honour His greatness. From all eternity and unto all eternity thou hast been in the exaltation of holiness and majesty, and unto all eternity thou shalt be in the height of sanctity and beauteousness. Thou art he that hath become manifest through the maiiifestatioil of thy Lord, and kept hidden through the concealment of thy Lord, and

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thou art the First, for there is no first save thee, and the Last, for there is no last other than thee. Thou hast ascended through the degrees of creation unto that horizon where none hath gone before thee; and thou hast been raised upon the throne of thy glory on the highest horizon of paradise, higher than which there is nothing whatever in the knowledge of God. I call upon thee and upon all things as witnesses that thy blood is pure, untainted and unsullied, and that through the residue of its very mention the realities of all created things have been made manifest . . . I call upon God and upon all things as witnesses that God hath sanctified thee from all likenesses and hath given unto thee what He hath given unto no one in His creation ‑ not the dominion of earth and all that is on it, but the dominion of paradise and all that dwell therein. Thus, there shall not come into the heart of anyone a mention of grandeur or might, save that he shall come unto thee with a mention of humility and shall descend to the door of thy courtyard in the utmost degree of abasement . . . Verily, I call to witness the angels of the Throne and the Seat and the heavens and the most exalted paradise and the most glorious garden, that circle about thy grave, and ask that they may take the water that poureth from the eyes of whomsoever exhibiteth love for thee and may bring it into the presence of God, thy Lord, and that God may look upon him that hath performed that act of grace and that His paradise may lament over him, and that He may single him out for all His grace and all that He may fashion, for there is no drop of water more loved by God than that which hath flowed out over thy tribulations and hath appeared on the cheek by reason of thy sufferings . . .
	(From text in Muhammad 'Ali Malik Khusravi,
T,ár'kh‑i shuhad,á‑yi amr, I [Tehran 130 B.E./1973‑4], pp.412‑14)

THE BABI CALENDAR
The calendar system of Babism, known as the Badi' or New Calendar, was introduced by the Bab in several works, including the Persiain Bayán (5:3, pp.152‑4). Its basis is a solar year broken into 19 months, each of 19 days, the total of 361 equalling the numerical value of the phrase kullu shay', "All Things". T'here arc also four or five intercallary days (whose positioning is a matter of disagreement between the Azalis and Baha'is).
The Bab is also said to have instituted 19‑year cycles termed wáhid. Nineteen such cycles constitute a kullu shay', though it is not clear what ‑further significance this has. Each of the years in a wahid has its own name, as follows:
	I	A lif	I I Bahhdj
	2	Ba'	12 Jait,áb
	3	Ab	13 Ahad
	4	Dál	14 Wahháb
	5	Báb	15 Widád
	6	Wáw	16 Bad"
	7	Abad	17 Bah'
	8	Jád	18 Abhá
	9	Bahá'	19 Wáhid
	10 	llubb
Baha'is date the commencement of the Bad!' era (B.E.) from the Naw‑Ruz preceding the announcement of the Bab's mission in Jumada 1, 1260/May 1844 (Browne, Traveller's Narrative, 1, p.425), but there are indications that the Bab himself intended it to begin in the sixth year after that (see W. McE. Miller, The Bahá" Faith: its history and teachings, South Pasadena, Calif. 1974, p.63; cf. H.D., pp.5‑6).
The Babi months are named as follows:
I Bahá', 21 March‑8 April	I I Mashiyyat, 27 September‑
2 Jalál, 9‑27 April	15 Octobcr
3	Jamál, 28 April‑16 May	12	Win, 16 October‑3 November
4	'Azarnat, 17 May‑4 June	13	Qudrat, 4‑22 November
5	Nur , 5‑23 June	14	Qawl, 23 November‑11
6	Rahmat, 24 June‑12 July		December
7	Kaiitnát, 13 July‑I August	15	Masá'il, 12‑30 December
8	Kar?iál, 2‑19 August	16	Sharaf, 31 December
9	Asmá', 20 August‑		18 January
	7 September	17 Siiltán, 19 January‑6 February
10 'Izzat, 8‑26 September 18 Mulk, 7 February‑1 March
		19 A'Iá', 2‑20 March

[graphic]

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Each of the days of the month has its own name, these corresponding to and in the same order as the months themselves. Thus, the first day of the month of Baha' is likewise Baha', its second day is Jalal, and so on. The days of the week have been named as follows:
1	Saturday, Jalál
2	Sunday, Jamál
3	Monday, KamJ1
4	Tuesday, Fidal
5	Wednesday, 'Idál
6	Thursday, Istijlál
7 	Friday, Istiqldl

VI	AN EXAMPLE OF THE BAB'S INVOCATORY STYLE

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VII THE THREE BAHA'I SALATS, TRANSLATED BY SHOGHI EFFENDI I The short salat I bear witness, 0 my God, that Thou hast created me to know Thee and to worship Thee. I testify, at this moment, to my powerlessness and to Thy might, to my poverty and to Thy wealth.
There is none other God but Thee, the Help in Peril, the SelfSubsisting.

2 The medium salat
[The two verses for wudu', which appear in the translation, have been
omitted.]
Then let him stand up, and facing the Qiblih [sic] 	let him say:
God testifieth that there is none other God but Him. His are the kingdoms of Revelation and of creation. He, in truth, hath manifested Him Who is the Day‑Spring of Revelation, Who conversed on Sinai, through Whom the Supreme Horizon hath been made to shine, and the Lote‑Tree beyond which there is no passing hath spoken, and through Whom the call hath been proclaimed unto all who are in heaven and on earth: "Lo, the All‑Possessing is come. Earth and heaven, glory and dominion are God's, the Lord of all men, and the Possessor of the Throne on high and of earth below!"
Let him, then, bend down, with hands resting on the knees, and say:
Exalted art Thou above my praise and the praise of anyone beside me, above my description and the description of all who are in heaven and. all who are on earth!
Then, standing with open hands, palms upward toward the face, let him say:
Disappoint not, 0 my God, him that hath, with beseeching fingers, clung to the hem of Thy mercy and Thy grace, 0 Thou Who of those who show mercy art the Most Merciful!
Let him, then, be seated and say:
I bear witness to Thy unity and Thy oneness, and that Thou art God, and that there is none other God beside Thee. Thou hast, verily, revealed Thy Cause, fulfilled Thy Covenant, and opened wide the door of Thy grace to all that dwell in heaven and on earth. Blessing and peace, salutation and glory, rest upon Thy loved ones, whom the changes and chances of the world have not deterred from turning unto Thee, and who have given their all, in the hope of obtaining that which is with Thee. Thou art, in truth, the Ever‑Forgiving, the All‑Bountiful.
(If anyone choose to recite instead of the long verse these words: "God testifieth that there is none other God but Him, the Help in Peril, the Self‑Subsisting," it would be sufficient. And likewise, it would

suffice were he, while seated, to choose to recite these words: "I bear witness to Thy unity and Thy oneness, and that Thou art God, and that there is none other God beside Thee.")

3 The long salat
Whoso wisheth to recite this prayer, let him stand up and turn unto God, and, as he standeth in his place, let him gaze to ttie right and to the left, as if awaiting the mercy of His Lord, the Most Merciful, the Compassionate. Then let him say:
0 Thou Who art the Lord of all names and the Maker of the heavens! I beseech Thee by them Who are the Day‑Springs of Thine invisible Essence, the Most Exalted, the All‑Glorious, to make of my prayer a fire that will burn away the veils which have shut me out from Thy beauty, and a light that will lead me unto the ocean of Thy Presence.
Let him then raise his hands in supplication toward God ‑ blessed and exalted be He ‑ and say:
0 Thou the I)esire of the world and the Beloved of the nations! Thou seest me turning toward Thee, and rid of all attachment to anyone save Thee, and clinging to Thy cord, through whose movement the whole creation hath been stirred up. I am Thy servant, 0 my Lord, and the son of Thy servant. Behold me standing ready to do Thy will andThy desire, and wishing naught else except Thy good pleasure. I implore Thee by the Ocean of Thy mercy and the Day‑Star of Thy grace to do with Thy servant asThou wiliest and pleasest. By Thy might which is far above all mention and praise! Whatsoever is revealed by Thee is the desire of my heart and the beloved of my soul. 0 God, my God! Look not upon my hopes and my doings, nay rather look upon Thy will that hath encompassed the heavens and the earth. By Thy Most Great Narne, 0 I'hou Lord of all naitions! I have desired only what Thou didst dcsire, and love only what Thou dost love.
Let him then kneel, and bowing his forehead to the ground, let him say:
Exalted art Thou above the description of anyone save I'hyself, and the comprehension of aught else except Thee.
Let him then stand and say:
Make my prayer, 0 my Lord, a fountain of living waters whereby I may live as long as Thy sovereignty endureth, and may make mention of Thee in every world of Thy worlds.
Let him again raise his hands in supplication, and say:
0 Thou in separation from Whom hearts and souls have melted, and by the fire of Whose love the whole world hath been set aflame! I implore Thee by Thy Name through which Thou hast subdued the whole creation, not to withhold from me that which is with Thee, 0 Thou Who rulest over all men! Thou seest, 0 my Lord, this stranger

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hastening to his most exalted home beneath the canopy of 'Thy majesty and within the precincts of Thy mercy; and this transgressor seeking the ocean of Thy forgiveness; and this lowly one the court of Thy glory; and this poor creature the orient of Thy wealth. Thine is the authority to command whatsoever Thou willest. I bear witness that Thou art to be praised in Thy doings, and to be obeyed in Thy behests, and to remain unconstrained in Thy bidding.
Let him then raise his hands, and repeat three times the Greatest Name. Let him then bend down with hands resting on the knees before God ‑blessed and exalted be He ‑ and say:
Thou seest, 0 my God, how my spirit hath been stirred up within my limbs and members, in its longing to worship Thee, and in its yearning to remember Thee and extol Thee; how it testifieth to that whereunto the Tongue of Thy Commandment hath testified in the kingdom of nine utterance and the heaven of Thy knowledge. I love, in this state, 0 my Lord, to beg of Thee all that is with Thee, that I may demonstrate my poverty, and magnify Thy bounty and Thy riches, and may declare my powerlessness, and manifest Thy power and Thy might.
Let him then stand and raise his hands twice in supplication, and say:
There is no God but Thee, the Almighty, the All‑Bountiful. There is no God but Thee, the Ordainer, both in the beginning and in the end. 0 God, my God! Thy forgiveness hath emboldened me, and Thy mercy hath strengthened me, and Thy call hath awakened me, and Thy grace hath raised me up and led me unto Thee. Who, otherwise, am I that I should dare to stand at the gate of the city of Thy nearness, or set my face toward the lights that are shining from the heaven of Thy will? Thou seest, 0 my Lord, this wretched creature knocking at the door of Thy grace, and this evanescent soul seeking the river of everlasting life from the hands of Thy bounty. Thine is the command at all times, 0 Thou Who art the Lord of all names; and mine is resignation and willing submission to Thy will, 0 Creator of the heavens!
Let him then raise his hands thrice, and say:
Greater is God than every great one!
Let him then kneel and, bowing his forehead to the ground, say:
Too high art Thou for the praise of those who are nigh unto Thee to ascend unto the heaven of Thy nearness, or for the birds of the hearts of them who are devoted to Thee to attain to the door of Thy gate. I testify that Thou hast been sanctified above all attributes and holy above all names. No God is there but Thee, the Most Exalted, the All‑Glorious.
Let him then seat himself and say:
I testify unto that whereunto have testified all created things, and the Concourse on high, and the inmates of the all‑highest Paradise, and beyond them the Tongue of Grandeur itself from the all‑glorious Horizon, that Thou art God, that there is no God but 'nee, and that He

Who hath been manifested is the Hidden Mystery, the T'reasured Symbol, through Whom the letters B and E (Be) have been joined and knit together. I testify that it is He Whose name hath been set down by the Pen of the Most High, and Who hath been mentioned in the Books of God, the Lord of the T'hrone on high and of earth below.
Let him then stand erect and saty:
0 Lord of all being and Possessor of all things visible and invisible! Thou dost perceive my tears and the sighs I utter, and hearest my groaning, and my wailing, and the lamentation of my heart. By Thy might! My trespasses have kept me back from drawing nigh unto Thee; and my sins have held me far from the court of Thy holiness. Thy love, 0 my Lord, hath enriched me, and separation from Thee hath destroyed me, and remoteness from Thee hath consumed me. I entreat Thee by Thy footsteps in this wilderness, and by the words "Flere am 1. Here am I" which Thy chosen Ones have uttered in this immensity, and by the breaths of Thy Revelation, and the gentle winds of the Dawn of Thy Manifestation, to ordain that I may gaze onThy beauty and observe whatsoever is in T'hy Book.
Let him then repeat the Greatest Name thrice and bend down with hands resting on the knees, and say:
Praise be to Thee, 0 my God, that Thou hast aided me to remember Thee and to praise Thee, and hast made known unto me Him Who is the Day‑Spring of Thy signs, and hast caused me to bow down before thy Lordship, and humble myself before Thy Godhead, and to acknowledge that which hath been uttered by the Tongue of Thy grandeur.
Let him then rise and say:
0 God, my God! My back is bowed by the burden of my sins, and my heedlessness hath destroyed me. Whenever I ponder my evil doings and Thy benevolence, my heart melteth within me, and my blood boileth in my veins. By Thy Beauty, 0 Thou the Desire of the world! I blush to lift up my face to Thee, and my longing hands are ashamed to stretch forth toward the heaven of Thy bounty. Thou seest, 0 my God, how my tears prevent me from remembering Thee and from extolling Thy virtues, 0 Thou the Lord of the Throne on high and of earth below! I implore Thee by the signs of Thy Kingdom and the mysteries of Thy Dominion to do with Thy loved ones as becometh Thy bounty, 0 Lord of all being, and as is worthy of Thy grace, 0 King of the seen and the unseen!
Let him then repeat the Greatest Name thrice, and kneel with his forehead to the ground, and say:
Praise be unto Thee, 0 our God, that Thou hast sent down unto us that which draweth us nigh unto Thee, and supplieth us with every good thing sent down by Thee in Thy Books and Thy Scriptures. Protect us, we beseech Thee, 0 my Lord, from the hosts of idle fancies and vain imaginations. Thou, in truth, art the Mighty, the All‑Knowing.

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Let him then raise his head, and seat himself, and say:
I testify, 0 my God, to that whereunto Thy chosen Ones have testified, and acknowledge that which the inmates of the all‑highest Paradise and those who have circled round Thy mighty Throne have acknowledged. The kingdoms of earth and heaven are Thine, 0 Lord of the worlds!
	(Prayers and Meditations, pp.240‑48)
(Reproduced by kind permission of the Bahd'l Publishing 
Trust)

Vill	SALAT BY BAHA' ALLAH, TO BE RECITED IN TIME
OF NEED
Whenever you wish to reach the summit of grace and to attain unto the most exalted spot, that there may be ordatined for you all that is good in the heaven of decree, on the pairt of your Lord, the Exalted, the Most Glorious, detach yourself from all things and perform ablutions with pure, sanctified water, as you have been commanded in the Bayán on the part of Him Who sends down the verses, the Ancient One. And while you are washing your hands, say: "0 Lord, purify me from all save Thee and make me ready for meeting Thee in the day of the manifestation of Thy beauty and the rise of Thy self. Sanctify me, then, from all that hais veiled me from Thy resplendent beauty and purge nie for the knowledge of Thine exalted and mighty Self."
And while washing your face, say: "0 Lord, this is my face which I am washing as Thou hast commanded me with this water. Wherefore, 0 my God, I ask Thee by T'hy name, from which most of Thy servants have been veiled, save those among Thy creatures who testify unto Thy unity, to wash my face with the water of Thy mercy that hath flowed out from the right hand of the Throne of Thy majesty, that it may be made pure for Thy holy, shining, and resplendent Face. 0 Lord, protect it, then, from turning unto aiught save Thee or front faicing them that have disbelieved in T'hy most great verses at the time of the revelation of Thy lofty and most exalted Self, in Thy name the Most Holy, the Most Inaccessible, the Most Wondrous, the Most Glorious. Deprive me not, 0 my God, of the glances of the eyes of Thy favour and cause me not to despair of the holy fragrances of Thy bounties. Thou, verily, art He Who answ,ers the pratyers of them that pray unto Thee, and art nigii iiiito those that have sought Thy neartiess. T'hou art, in truth, tile Possessor of great bounty. 0 Lord, make it, then, illumined in the day whereon faces have been turned black, and resplendent with the lights of Thy bounteous Faice." And if you should read this after the waishing, it is no maitter, this is at favour on behalf of your Lord, the All‑Knowing.
And when you have finished this, make use of perfume, then put on your finest clothes, then turn your face in the direction of the sanctuary of God, round which will circle at this moment the spirits of all created things, whether of the seen or the unseen, and the spirits of those who were not given any command but yet turned their gaze unto the Face of your Lord, the Most Exalted, the Mighty, the Inaccessible.
Stand, then, firm upon your place, then raise your hands towards God calmly aind %w,itli manifest dignity, and say: "Lord, I ask Thee by Thy name whereby T'hou didst shine forth upon all created things and didst take possession of all that are in existence, even as Thou hast perfulned me with this scent to perfume me with the holy fragrances of Thy

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mercifulness and the sweet‑scented breaths whereby Thou dost render fragrant the robe of Thine own Self, the Mighty, the Resplendent, lest anyone should inhale from me aught else save the holy breezes of 'Thy grace and Thy loving‑kindness, and that I may, in my entirety, turn myself unto Thee and detach myself from all save Thee. Thou, verily, art He Who is powerful to do as He pleases, and Thou art, in truth, the Generous, the Merciful. 0 Lord, 0 my Beloved and my Hope and the King of my inner being and my soul, send down at this moment upon Thy servant that which beseemeth the power of Thy bounty and Thy generosity and is worthy of the wonders of Thy grace and Thy benevolence. Deprive me not, 0 my God, of that which Thou hast decreed in the heavens of Thy will and the clouds of Thy volition for Thy holy ones, whom Thou hast singled out for Thine own Self, the Mighty, the All‑Beauteous. 0 Lord, I am the poor one who has clung to the cord of Thy wealth, and I am the wretched one who has taken firm hold of the rope of 7by might and majesty, and I am the weak one that has sought to approach the pavilion of the glory of Thy power and the tent of the splendour of Thy sovereignty and dominion. Here then am 1, 0 my God. I have stood before Thee hoping for Thy grace, forgetful of all save Thee, fleeing from all others but Thee, turning unto the sanctuary of Thy presence and the Ka'ba of Thy good‑pleasure. Is there anything in existence save Thee that I may turn my face thereunto, and is there anything manifest save Thee, that I may advance unto it? No, by Thy beauty! Nay, all things that are manifest have been made as nothing before the manifestations of the lights of the sanctity of Thy greatness, and all things that are exalted are extinguished before the forms of the glory of Thy exaltation and loftiness. Send down, then, 0 my God, upon Thy servant that which shall make him independent of all that hath been created in the heavens and on the earth. Thou art, verily, the Most Merciful of the merciful."
Then take three steps forward, facing in the direction of God, and at the first step say: "0 Lord, cause to shine forth upon me in this station that which shone forth upon Moses (al‑Kal'm) upon the Paran of Thy love and the Horeb of Thy bounty and the Sinai of the glory of Thy mercifulness, 0 Mighty and Inaccessible. Detach me, then, 0 my God, from the names and their kingdom, lest I be veiled by them from Him Who created them by but a command from Him. Thou art, verily, Powerful over all things. Cause me, then, to hear, 0 my God, Thy call from every tree, as Thou didst cause to hearken to the voice from the Lote‑tree of Thy command the servant whom Thou didst choose and whom Thou didst send unto every world of Thy worlds."
And at the second step stop and say: "0 Lord, shine forth in this station as Thou didst shine forth upon Jesus (al‑Rúh), that I may arise from the praise of Thy Self and may speak forth Thy verses among Thy

hecdless servaiiits, that tlicreby their ficarts may be purified from doubt and uncertainty in respect of Thy cause, at which all but a small handful of them that are in the realm of names have faiinted away. 0 Lord, sanctify me in this station from the attributes and their reailm, that have come between me and my beholding the lights of the divine Essence. Give me, then, 0 my God, to drink of the cup of eternity from the hands of the mention of the name of my Lord, the most Exalted [i.e. the Bab] in this second cycle. T'hou, verily, art the Possessor of mighty grace. 0 Lord, give me to taste of the fountain of living waters, that I may be set afire by the heat of Thy love to such a degree that Thy servants may be set aflame through me. Cause there to flow, then, from my mouth the river of knowledge in recognition of T'hy Self, the AllMerciful, that through it I may demonstrate Thy proof unto Thy creation who have been shaken in Thy manifest, resplendent, and straight path."
At the third step, stop and say: "0 Lord, shine forth in this station as Thou didst sliine forth upon Thy propliets and Thy clioseii oties ttiatt aire nigh unto Thee. Dctaicii me, then, 0 my God, from botli this world and the world to come and cause me to enter the patradise of nieeting with I'hee and the gairden of 'I'hine utteraince, 0 Thou Mighty and Resplendent One. 0 Lord, erase from my heart every mention save the mention of Thee, that I may arise in praise of Thy Self between the heavens and the earth. 0 Lord, forgive me, then, my mighty sins and my great errors and all that I have neglected in the proximity of my Lord, the Exalted, the Most High [the Bab], and my hesitation upon his path that hath encompassed all the worlds. 0 Lord, clothe me, then, with the garment of forgiveness and the robe of certitude. Thou, verily, art He that fulfilleth the needs of them that seek 'Fhee."
T'hen prostrate thyself with thy face touching the earth, and say: "Unto Thee be praise, 0 my God, for the wonders of T'hy lovingkindness and the manifestation of T'hy bounties towards me, in that Thou hast shown me the path of Thy kiiowledge witiiin the waiys ofThy guidanee. I beseecii 'I'liee, tlieii, 0 my God, by the liglit of Thy faice, through which all created things have been illumined and all beings have been set alight, not to make me one of those that have heard T'hv call and have failed to answer Thee, or of those unto whom T'hou hast revealed 'I'hyself in T'hy most exalted nianifestation and Thy most glorious appearance and have failed to obey. Make, then, for me a seat of glory within the precincts of Thy name, the All‑Merciful, in the paradise that T'liou hast created in the midmost heart of heaven and join me, ttien, with Thy servants that are nigh unto T'hee. Send down upon me, then, every good thing that is in T'hy knowledge and cause me to be raised up upon the day of resurrection before the Manifestation of Thy Self, the Exalted, the Lofty, the Powerful."

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Then lift up Thy face from the earth, for thou hast completed that unto which thou wast commanded in this manifest tablet. By the life of him whom God shall manifest, whosoever performs these actions in a spirit of utter devotion to the face of his Lord and detached from all else save Him, God shall fulfil his needs and shall cause him to be resurrected on the day of judgement in such a form that the angels nigh unto God shall be struck with amazement. Thus have we taught thee and made mention unto Thee that thou mayest attain unto the presence of thy Lord and may not be deprived of that which is better for thee than the treasures of earth and heaven. If thou dost carry it out, thou shalt have carried it out for thine own sake, and if thou dost neglect it, thy Lord is independent of all the worlds.
(Amr, IV, pp.74‑9)
(The text in Ishráq Khávarl, Má'ida, VII, p.135, translates the directions into Persian and compresses them; after the last direction "Then lift up thy face from the earth", it has the instruction "and ask from God that of which you are in need".)

IX PRAYER BY BAHA' ALLAH DESIGNED TO BE READ EVERY MORNING AND EVENING Read this prayer every morning and evenitig:
Praise be to Thee, 0 my God! I beseech 'I'hee by 'I'Iiy Most Greatt Name, whereby the Sun of Thy Command shone forth above the horizon of Thine inspiration, not to deprive us of the breezes that have wafted from the direction of Thy bountiful grace. Make us, then, 0 my God, utterly devoted unto Thy face and detached from all save Thee. Cause us, then, to be raised up among those of Thy servants who have not been kept back by human tokens from turning in the direction of the manifestation of Thy oneness. 0 Lord, cause us to enter beneath the shadow of Thy most great mercy and protect us from Thy servants that have disbelieved in Thy most glorious name. Give us to drink of the pure wine of Thy bounty and the cup of Thy grace and favours. Thou, verily, art Powerful to do as Thou wiliest and Thou art the Forgiving, the Compassionate. 0 Lord, cause us to arise in Thy love amidst Thy creation, for this, verily, is Thy greatest bestowal unto Thy servants. Thou, truly, art the Most Merciful of the merciful.
(Amr, IV, p.60; Ad"a, pp.210‑1 1)

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X PRAYERS TO BE SAID AT TABLE
1 Prayer of 'Abd al‑Baha' to be recited before eating
My Lord and My Hope. Praise be to 'nee that Thou hast sent down upon us this spiritual table, this divine bounty, this heavenly blessing. 0 our Lord, enable us to eat of this food of the kingdom that its subtle essences may pervade the corners of our spiritual being and that there may be produced from that heavenly strength for the service of Thy cause, the spread of Thy revelation, and the adorning of Thy garden with lofty trees bearing branches near at hand, perfumed with fresh breezes. Thou, verily, art the All‑Generous. Thou art the Possessor of mighty grace. Thou art the Merciful, the Compassionate.
(Amr, 111, p.69)

2 Prayer of 'Abd al‑Baha' to be recited after eating
My Lord and my Hope. Thanks be to Thee for these bestowals and bounties. Lord, Lord, raise us up unto Thy Kingdom and seat us at the tables of Thy realm on high. Give us to eat of the food of Thy presence and give us to taste of the sweetness of beholding Thy beauty ‑ this, in truth, is our highest wish and Thy greatest bestowal and most mighty bounty. Lord, Lord, make this easy for us. Verily, Thou art the Generous, the Bountiful, and Thou art the Giver, the Mighty, the Compassionate. Upon thee be greetings and praise.
(Amr, III, p.70)

(See also two prayers in Amr, III, p.70.)

X1 THE ARABIC "TABLET OF AHMAD", TRANSLATED BY SHOGHI EFFENDT He is the King, the All‑Knowing, the Wise!
Lo, the Nightingaile of Paradise singeth upon the twigs of the T'ree of Eternity, with holy and sweet melodies, proclaiming to the sincere ones the glad tidings of the nearness of God, calling the believers in the Divine Unity to the court of the Presence of the Generous One, informing the severed ones of the message which hath been revealed by God, the King, the Glorious, the Peerless, guiding the lovers to the seat of sanctity and to this resplendent Beauty.
Verily this is that Most Great Beauty, foretold in the Books of the Messengers, through Whom truth shall be distinguistied from error allid the wisdom of every command shall be tested. Verily fie is the Tree of Life that bringeth forth the fruits of God, the Exalted, the Powerful, the Great.
0 Ahmad! Beatr thou witness that verily lie is God and ttiere is no God but Him, the King, the Protector, the Incomparable, the Omnipotent. And that the One Whom He hath sent forth by the name of 'Ali (i.e. His Holiness the Bab) was the true One from God, to Whose commands we are all conforming.
Say: 0 people be obedient to the ordinances of God, which haive been enjoined in the Bayán by the Glorious, the Wise One. Verily Fie is the King of the Messengers and His Book is the Mother Book did ye but know.
Thus doth the Nightingale utter His call unto you from this prison. He hath but to deliver this clear message. Whosoever desireth, let him turn aside from this counsel and whosoever desireth let him choose the path to his Lord.
0 people, if ye deny these verses, by what proof have ye believed in God? Produce it, 0 assemblage of false ones.
Nay, by the One in Whose hand is my soul, they are not, and never shall be able to do this, even should they combine to assist one another.
0 Ahmad! Forget not My bounties while I am absent. Remember My days during thy days, and My distress and banishment in this remote prison. And be thou so steadfast in My love that thy heart shall not waver, even if the swords of the enemies rain blows upon thee and all the heavens and the earth arise against thee.
Be thou as a flame of fire to My enemies and a river of life eternal to My loved ones, and be not of those who doubt.
And if thou art overtaken by affliction in My path, or degradation for My sake, be not thou troubled thereby.
Rely upon God, thy God and the Lord of thy fathers. For the people are wandering in the paths of delusion, bereft of discernment to see God

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with their own eyes, or hear His Melody with their own ears. Thus have We found them, as thou also dost witness.
Thus have their superstitions become veils between them and their own hearts and kept them from the path of God, the Exalted, the Great.
Be thou assured in thyself that verily, he who turns away from this Beauty hath also turned away from the Messengers of the past and showeth pride towards God from all eternity to all eternity.
Leam well this Tablet, 0 Ahmad. Chant it during thy days and withhold not thyself therefrom. For verily, God hath ordained for the one who chants it, the reward of a hundred martyrs and a service in both worlds. These favours have We bestowed upon thee as a bounty on Our part and a mercy from Our presence, that thou mayest be of those who are grateful.
By God! Should one who is in affliction or grief read this Tablet with absolute sincerity, God will dispel his sadness, solve his difficulties and remove his afflictions.
Verily, He is the Merciful, the Compassionate. Praise be to God, the Lord of all the worlds.
	(Prayers for Special Occasions, pp.47‑50)
(Reproduced by kind permission of the Bahá'i Publishing Trust)

X11	PRAYER OF BAHA' ALLAH TO BE SAID AFTER DISTURBED
DREAMS
It hath been decreed that, if anyone should have a troubled dream and should thereby be grieved and saddened, he may recite this blessed verse: "0 Thou through Whose Name the ocean of joyfulness hath been made to surge and the fragrance of gladness hath been wafted, I beseecil Thee to cause me to behold, by the wonders of T'hy grace, what will render my eyes solaced and my heart joyful. Thou art, verily, the Beneficent, the Merciful." Even in the case of dreams which have not been troubled, it is agreeable for this verse to be recited.
(From the tablet to Muhammad Karim‑i 'Attar, in Má'ida, IV, p.366)

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XIII	PRAYER OF BAHA' ALLAH REQUESTING THAT GOD REVEAL
MAT'rERS IN SLEEP
God hath spoken thus in the Tree of Separation: 0 Friends! Be patient and beware lest ye fail to make mention of us. Make mention, then, of our days in a spirit of love. Say: the Beauty of the Spirit hath vanished, at which all eyes have wept and all hearts have been consumed. Make thou mention, 0 Rida, of my days and of my melodies and of the glorious and beloved refrains. Think, then, upon the days of the Spirit and of how it appeared among you and was with you for a few years. Protect thyself and those who are in thy house, be they men or women. Know, then, that we have made this tablet a robe for thy self that thou mayest inhale from it the fragrances of God, the Mighty, the Beloved. And we have sent forth from this robe the soft breezes of grace upon all that have put on the garment of existence. Blessed be he that cometh upon it and perceiveth from it that which shall turn him towards the Egypt of a manifest glory. And whosoever reads this tablet while possessing in his heart the love of his Lord, shall behold in his sleep whatsoever he desireth of the meeting with God, the Mighty, the Beloved. Thus have we shown our grace unto thee again that thou mayest be content with us and with thyself in these days unto which the near ones have not attained. Remember, then, on our behalf, all those that are in thy house, that the love of God may be created among them and that they may gather together in their cause. Show kindness then unto her whom God caused to be related to him who went into exile with His Servant; thus have we counselled you in truth, if ye be of them that know. The Spirit be upon you and upon them that rely upon their Lord.
(Ad"a, pp.212‑14; Tasbih, pp.213‑15)

XIV	TWO PRAYERS FOR THE PURPOSE OF BEING SHOWN
VISIONS IN SLEEP
I When thou desirest and yearnest for meeting in the world of vision, at the time when thou art in perfect . . . and spirituality, wash thy hainds and face, clothe thyself in clean robes, turn toward the court of the Peerless One, offer prayer to Him, and lay thy head on thy pillow. When sleepeth cometh, the doors of revelation shall be opened and all thy desires shall become revealed.

2 Arise and wash thy body, wear a pure gown, and, devoting thyself to the Kingdom of God, supplicate and pray to Him. Sleep in a clean, wellprepared and ventilated place, and ask for appearance in the world of vision. Thou wilt have visions which will cause the door of doubts to be closed, which will give thee new joy, wonderful devotion, brilliant glory. Thou wilt comprehend realities and meanings.
(No Arabic or Persian text of these is known to the author.)

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XV	PRAYER BY BAHA' ALLAH TO REQUEST A CHILD
I ask Thee, then, 0 God of all existence and King of the Seen and the Unseen, to bestow upon me a healthy child that he may make mention of Thee in Thy earth and may sing Thy praises in Thy lands. Although Thou hast, with this tablet, made me independent of every trace and fruit and mention, yet at this moment my prayer is that which hath been uttered by Thy chosen ones: Lord, leave me not alone; Thou art the best of heirs.
(Amr, IV, p.69)

XVI THE ARABIC "TABLET OF THE HOLY MARINER"
(LAWH MALLAH AL‑QUDS), TRANSLATED BY SHOGHI EFFENDI
He is the Gracious, the well‑beloved!
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
0 Holy Mariner!
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Bid thine ark of etemity appear before the Celestial Concourse,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Launch it upon the ancient sea, in His Name, the Most Wondrous,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And let the angelic spirits enter, in the Name of God, the Most High.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Unmoor it, then, that it may sail upon the ocean of glory,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Haply the dwellers therein may attain the retreats of nearness in the
	everlasting realm.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Having reached the sacred strand, the shore of the crimson seas,
Bid them issue forth and attain this ethereal invisible station,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
A station wherein the Lord hath in the Flame of His Beauty appeared
	within the deathless tree;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Wherein the embodiments of I fis Cause cleansed themselves of self and
	passion;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Around which the Glory of Moses doth circle with the everlasting hosts;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Wherein the Hand of God was drawn forth from His bosom of
	Grandeur;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Wherein the ark of the Cause remaineth motionless even though to its
	dwellers be declared all divine attributes.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
0 Mariner! Teach them that are within the ark that which we have
	taught thee behind the mystic veil,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Perchance they may not tarry in the sacred snow‑white spot,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
But may soar upon the wings of the spirit unto that station which the
	Lord hath exalted above all mention in the worlds below,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!

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May wing through space even as the favoured birds in the realm of eternal reunion;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
May know the mysteries hidden in the Seas of Light.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
They passed the grades of worldly limitations and reached that of the divine unity, the centre of heavenly guidance.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
They have desired to ascend unto that state which the Lord hath ordained to be above their stations.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Whereupon the burning meteor cast them out from them that abide in the Kingdom of His Presence,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And they heard the Voice of Grandeur raised from behind the unseen pavilion upon the Height of Glory:
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
‑0 guardian angels! Return them to their abode in the world below,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Inasmuch as they have purposed to rise to that sphere which the wings of the celestial dove have never attained;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Whereupon the ship of fancy standeth still which the minds of them that comprehend cannot grasp."
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Whereupon the maid of heaven looked out from her exalted chamber,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And with her brow signed to the Celestial Concourse,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Flooding with the light of her countenance the heaven and the earth,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And as the radiance of her beauty shone upon the people of dust,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
All beings were shaken in their mortal graves.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
She then raised the call which no ear through all eternity hath ever heard,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And thus proclaimed: "By the Lord! He whose heart hath not the fragrance of the love of the exalted and glorious Arabian Youth,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Can in no wise ascend unto the glory of the highest heaven."
Thereupon she summoned unto herself one maiden from her handmaidens,

Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And commanded her: "Descend into space from the mansions of eternity,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And turn thou unto that which they have concealed in the inmost of their hearts.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Shouldst thou inhale the perfume of the robe from the Youth that hath been hidden within the tabernacle of light by reason of that which the hands of the wicked have wrought,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Raise a cry within thyself, that all the inmates of the chambers of Paradise, that are the embodiments of the eternal wealth, may understand and hearken;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
That they may all come down from their everlasting chambers and tremble,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And kiss their hands and feet for having soared to the heights of faithfulness;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Perchance they may find from their robes the fragrance of the Beloved One."
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Thereupon the countenance of the favoured damsel beamed above the celestial chambers even as the light that shineth from the face of the Youth above His mortal temple;
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Gloriousl
She then descended with such an adorning as to illumine the heavens and all that is therein.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
She bestirred herself and perfumed all things in the lands of holiness and grandeur.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
When she reached that place she rose to her full height in the midmost heart of creation,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And sought to inhale their fragrance at a time that knoweth neither beginning nor end.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
She found not in them that which she did desire, and this, verily, is but one of His wondrous tales.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!

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She then cried aloud, wailed and repaired to her own station within her most lofty mansion,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And then gave utterance to one mystic word, whispered privily by her honeyed tongue,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And raised the call amidst the Celestial Concourse and the immortal maids of heaven:
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
"By the Lord! I found not from these idle claimants the breeze of Faithfulness!
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
By the Lord! The Youth hath remained lone and forlorn in the land of exile in the hands of the ungodly."
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
She then uttered within herself such a cry that the Celestial Concourse did shriek and tremble,
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
And she fell upon the dust and gave up the spirit. It seemeth she was called and hearkened unto Him that summoneth her unto the Realm on High.
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Glorified be He that created her out of the essence of love in the midmost heart of His exalted paradise!
Glorified be my Lord, the All‑Glorious!
Thereupon the maids of heaven hastened forth from their chambers, upon whose countenance the eye of no dweller in the highest paradise had ever gazed.
Glorified be our Lord, the Most High!
They all gathered around her, and lo! they found her body fallen upon the dust;
Glorified be our Lord, the Most High!
And as they beheld her state and comprehended a word of the tale told by the Youth, they bared their heads, rent their garments asunder, beat upon their faces, forgot their joy, shed tears and smote with their hands upon their cheeks, and this is verily one of the mysterious afflictions ‑
Glorified be our Lord, the Most High!
	(Prayers for Special Occasions, pp. 51‑7)
(Reproduced by kind permission of the Bahd'i Publishing Trust)

XVU	PRAYER BY BAHA' ALLAH
He is God, exalted be He; His condition is that of greatness and might.
My God, my God, I give thanks to Thee under all circumstances and I praise Thee under all conditions. In blessings, praise be to T'hee, 0 God of all worlds, and in their absence, tliainks be to'l'liee, 0 Object of them that know the mysteries. In suffering, praise be to T'hee, 0 Focus of the worship of all that are in the heavens and the earth, and in adversity, glory be to Thee, 0 Thou through Whom the hearts of them that long for Thee have been ravished. In hardship, praise be to Thee, 0 Object of them that seek Thee, and in misfortune, thanks be to Thee, 0 Thou Who art mentioned within the hearts of them that are nigh unto T‑hee. In riches, T'hine is the glory, 0 Lord of them that are devoted to 'I'liee, and in poverty,Thine is the command, 0 Hope of them that glorify Thy singleness. In joy, Thine is the majesty, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee, and in sadness, Thine is the beauty, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee. In hunger, Thine is the justice, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee, and in sufficiency, Thine is the grace, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee. At home, Thine is the favour, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee, and in the land of strangers, Thine is the decree, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee. Beneath the sword, Thine are the benefits, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee, and in the house, Thine is the perfection, 0 Thou, no god is there but Thee. In the palace, Thine is the generosity,
• Thou, no god is there but Thee, and in the dust, Thine is the bounty,
• Thou, no god is there but Thee. In prison, Thine is the faithfulness, 0 Abundant in benefits, and in confinement, Thine is the eternity, 0 King of all that has been. Thine is the bounty, 0 Lord of bounty and Sovereign of bounty and King of bounty. I bear witness that T'hou art praised in all that Thou doest, 0 Source of bounty, and obeyed in Thy decree, 0 Ocean of bounty, 0 Origin of bounty, 0 Place unto which bounty returns.
(Ad"a, pp.45‑52)

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KVIII	LITANY BY BAHA' ALLAH
rhe Beauty of holiness hath risen from behind the veil.
,And this is a wondrous thing.)
And the spirits have fainted away from the flames of attraction.
,And this is a wondrous matter.)
17hey have recovered consciousness and flown unto the pavilion of holiness on the 'Throne of Domes.
,And this is a wondrous mystery.)
3ay: the Maid of Eternity hath removed the veil from her face.
,Exalted be the new and wondrous Beauty.)
And the lights of her face have shone from the earth unto the clouds.
'And this is a wondrous light.)
And she has cast her glances as shooting stars are cast.
,And this is a wondrous casting.)
And all names and all titles have been set aflame by the fire of her face.
,'And this is a wondrous deed.)
And she has cast her glance upon the people of earth and dust.
'And this is a wondrous glance.)
Whereupon the tabernacles of creation shook and then vanished.
(And this is a wondrous death.)
Then there appeared from her a jet‑black hair, like the ornament of the spirit in the darkness of torment.
(And this is a wondrous colour.)
And there issued forth from her breezes of the spirit and sweet perfumes.
(And this is a wondrous musk.)
In her right hand ruby wine and in her left a portion of roast sweetmeats.
(And this is a wondrous bounty.)
And her palms were red and stained with the blood of the lovers.
(And this is a wondrous affair.)
And she passed round the living wine in long‑necked pitchers and goblets.
(And this is a wondrous fountain.)
And she sang in the name of the Beloved with lute and rebec.
(And this is a wondrous melody.)
Whereupon the hearts melted with fire and flames.
(And this is a wondrous love.)
And the sustenance of the Beauty was given them, with neither balance nor measure.
(And this is a wondrous sustenance.)
And the sword of her flashing eyes was drawn upon the necks.

(And this is a wondrous blow.)
She smiled and there appeared white, shining pearls.
(And this is a wondrous pearl.)
Whereupon the hearts of the possessors of minds cried out.
(And this is a wondrous renunciation.)
And every proud, disbelieving one turned aside from her.
(And this is naught but a wondrous rejection.)
And when she heard this, she returned unto her palace in sadness and affliction.
(And this is a wondrous grief.)
She came and she returned ‑ how exalted her coming and going.
(And this is a wondrous decree.)
And she cried out in her heart, a cry that caused all existence to expire and vanish.
(And this is a wondrous sadness.)
And she opened the fountain of her mouth in discourse and in reproof.
(And this is a wondrous stream.)
And she said, "Do not reject me, 0 People of the Book."
(And this is a wondrous matter.)
Are you the people of guidance and are you the friends?
(By God, this is a wondrous lie.)
And she said, "We shall not return unto you, 0 companions."
(And this is a wondrous returning.)
And we shall conceal the secrets of God that are in the tablets and the book.
(And this is a command from a Mighty and Generous One.)
And you shall not find me, save when the Promised One appears in the day of return.
(By my life, this is a wondrous abasement.)
(Ad"a, pp. 153‑8)

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XIX THE "FIRE TABLET" QAD 1HTARAQA'L‑MUKHL1S0N, BY BAHA' ALLAH In the Name of God, the Most Ancient, the Most Great.
They that are consecrated unto God have been consumed by the fire of separation ‑ where is the flashing of the lights of Thy presence, 0 Beloved of the Worlds?
They that are nigh unto God have been left abandoned within the shadows of exile ‑ where are the dawning rays of the moon of Thy union, 0 Desire of the Worlds?
The bodies of the chosen ones have been cast into confusion on the earth of remoteness ‑ where is the ocean of Thy nearness, 0 Thou that drawest unto Thee the Worlds?
The hands of longing are lifted up unto the heaven of grace and bounty ‑where are the rains of Thy bestowal, 0 Thou that answerest the prayers of the Worlds?
The infidels have risen up with violence in every direction ‑ where is the victory of the Pen of Thy decree, 0 Conqueror of the Worlds?
The barking of dogs hath been raised on every hand ‑ where is the lion of the jungle of Thy power, 0 Subduer of the Worlds?
All creation hath been overcome with cold ‑ where is the heat of Thy love, 0 Fire of the Worlds?
Afflictions have reached their height ‑ where are the revelations of Thy gladness, 0 Joy of the Worlds?
Darkness hath overwhelmed most beings ‑ where are the lights of Thy radiance, 0 Light of the Worlds?
Necks have grown high with hypocrisy ‑ where are the swords of Thy retribution, 0 Destroyer of the Worlds?
Wretchedness hath increased to its utmost degree ‑ where are the signs of Thy majesty, 0 Glory of the Worlds?
Sadness hath overtaken the dawning‑place of Thy name, the Merciful
where is the joy of the manifestations of Thy revelation, 0 Happiness of the Worlds?
All mankind hath been plunged into grief ‑ where are the tokens of Thy rejoicing, 0 Gladness of the Worlds?
Thou dost behold the dawning‑place of the verses behind the veils of vain allusions ‑ where is the finger of Thy might, 0 Power of the Worlds?
The trembling of thirst hath shaken all in the realm of creation where are the sweet waters of Thy bounty, 0 Mercy of the Worlds?
Greed hath taken hold of all in the realm of existence ‑ where are the dawning‑places of detachment, 0 Lord of the Worlds?

T'hou seest the Oppressed One alone amongst strangers ‑ wtiere is the host of the heaven of Thy command, 0 Monarch of the Worlds?
I have been left alone in the land of exile ‑ where are the dawningpoints of Thy fidelity, 0 Constancy of the Worlds?
The agonies of death have taken fast hold of the horizons of the world ‑where are the waters of Thy living ocean, 0 Life of the Worlds?
The evil whisperings of Satan have encompassed all that dwell upon the earth ‑ where are the shooting stars of Thy fire, 0 Light of the Worlds?
Most men have been altered by the drunkenness of desire ‑ where are the dawning‑places of piety, 0 Desire of the Worlds?
Thou seest the Wretched One in the veil of darkness among the people of Syria ‑ where is the glow of the light of Thy morning, 0 Lamp of the Worlds?
Thou seest me prohibited from speaking ‑ where will Thy melodies appear, 0 Dove of the Worlds?
Vain superstitions and imaginings have rendered unconscious most of mankind ‑ where are the dawning‑places of Thy certitude, 0 Tranquillity of the Worlds?
Baha' has been submerged beneath the ocean of tribulations ‑ where is the Ark of Thy salvation, 0 Saviour of the Worlds?
Thou beholdest the dawning‑place of Thy verses amidst the shadows of the contingent world ‑ where is the Sun of the horizon of Thy bounty, 0 Thou Who bestowest illumination on all the Worlds?
The lamps of truthfulness and purity, of zeal and faithfulness have been extinguished ‑ where are the tokens of Thy zeal, 0 Thou Who settest in motion the Worlds?
Dost thou see anyone who will come to thy assistance or who will ponder on what has befallen tliee, out of love for thee? Whereupon tile pen hesitated, 0 Beloved of the Worlds?
The branches of the Lote‑tree beyond which there is no passing have been snapped by the blowing of the winds of fate ‑ where are the banners of Thy victory, 0 Conqueror of the Worlds?
My face has remained upon the dust of false accusations ‑ where are the breezes of Thy mercy, 0 Thou that showest compassion to the Worlds?
The hem of the robe of holiness hath been sullied by the people of deceit ‑where is the ornament of Thy purification, 0 Thou that adornest the Worlds?
The ocean of bounty hath been stilled by what the hands of men have wrought ‑ where are the billows of Thy grace, 0 Aim of the Worlds?
The Gate of Meeting hath been locked by the tyranny of the people of enmity ‑ where is the key of ~y favour, 0 Thou that openest the Worlds?

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The leaves have turned yellow with the poisonous winds of treachery ‑ where are the heavy rains of the clouds of Thy bounty, 0 Thou art bountiful to the Worlds?
The entire creation hath been covered in the dust of rebellion where are the breezes of Thy forgiveness, 0 Thou Who forgivest. the Worlds?
The Youth hath been abandoned in a barren land ‑ where are the showers of the heaven of Thy grace, 0 Thou that sendest rain upon the worlds?
0 Most Exalted Pen, We have heard thy most sweet call from the kingdom of eternity. Give ear, then, to that which the Tongue of Grandeur speaketh, 0 Wronged One of the Worlds.
Were it not for th6 freezing cold, how should the heat of thine utterance be manifested, 0 thou that givest explanation unto the Worlds?
And were it not for affliction, how should the Sun of thy patience rise above the horizon, 0 Perplexed One of the Worlds?
Grieve not over the wrongdoers, for thou wast created to be longsuffering, 0 Patience of the Worlds.
How sweet is thy shining forth above the horizon of the covenant among the people of treachery, and your longing for God, 0 Love of the Worlds.
Through thee, the ensign of independence was lifted up upon the highest mountains and the sea of bounty surged, 0 Passion of the Worlds.
Through thy oneness, the Sun of divine unity shone forth, and through thy banishment the homeland of divine singleness was adorned ‑ wherefore be patient, 0 Stranger of the Worlds.
We have made abasement the robe of glory and affliction the ornament of thy tabernacle, 0 Pride of the Worlds.
Thou beholdest the hearts fiIled with rancour, but it is for thee to show forbearance, 0 Coverer of the sins of the Worlds.
Shouldst thou behold the sword, advance towards it; and should an arrow be let fly, turn your steps in its path, 0 Sacrifice of the Worlds.
Is it thou who lamentest, or is it I? Nay, I cry out aloud for the fewness of them that have lent thee their aid, 0 thou through whom hath been raised the lamentation of the Worlds.
I have heard thy cry, 0 most glorious Beloved. Whereupon, the face of Baha' hath been set aglow with the heat of tribulation and the lights of Thy luminous words, and he hath risen up with the utmost faithfulness in the place of martyrdom and sacrifice, gazing unto Thy good‑pleasure, 0 Thou Who appraisest the Worlds.

0 'Ali Akbar, give thanks unto God for this Tablet from which you may

discover the fragrance of the wrongs I have suffered and that which I have endured in the path of God, the Object of the devotion of the Worlds.
Should all my servants without exception read it and meditate upon it, there shall be ignited in every vein of their bodies a conflagration that shall set ablaze the Worlds.
(Tasb'h, pp.219‑24; Ad"a, pp. 169‑
79)

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XX SIX BAHA'I TALISMANIC PRAYERS 1 He is the Glory of the Most Glorious!
Make this land, 0 my God, blessed and secure for me. Guard me, then, 0 my God, at the time of my entering into it and my going out from it. Make it, then, a fortress for me and for whomsoever worships Thee and bows down before Thee, that I may be protected therein through Thy bounty and kept safe within it from the darts of those who have disbelieved in Thee, through Thy strength. Thou, verily, art the Potent, the Mighty, the All‑Powerful, the All‑Merciful.

(Baha' Allah, in Amr, IV, p.67)

2 In His Name, the All‑Glorious, the All‑Glorious.
Say: whosoever desires to protect himself, let him read this verse at night and at morn:
"0 God, my God, I ask Thee by Thy name whereby Thou didst protect Abraham from the fire and Moses from Pharaoh and Baha' from Yahya, to guard me from the wicked ones among Thy servants. Thou, verily, art the Powerful, the Mighty, the Forgiving."
(Baha' Allah, in Amr, IV, p.68)

3 4484137 He is the Glorified 137444
Praise be to Thee, 0 my God, I and all created things bear witness that Thou art God, no god is there but Thee. From all eternity Thou hast been sanctified from the mention of all things and unto all eternity Thou shalt be as Thou hast ever been, no god is there but Thee. In Thee is our final destination. I ask Thee, 0 God, my God, to protect the bearer of this white page from all evil and affliction, from every plague and pestilence. Thou, verily, guardest whomsoever Thou wiliest and Thou, truly, hast encompassed all things in Thy knowledge.
(Baha' Allah, in Amr, IV, p.68)

4 In the Name of God, the High, the Exalted, the Most Lofty.
Praise be unto Thee, 0 God, my God, my Lord and my Master, My

Reliance and my Hope, my Refuge and my Light. I beseecii Thee by Thy hidden and inviolate name that none knoweth but Thee, to protect the bearer of this page from every affliction and pestilence and from every Satan, whether man or woman, and from the evil of the wicked and the plotting of the unbelievers. Protect him also, 0 my God, from every pain and sickness, OThou, in Whose hand is the Kingdom of all things, Thou art, verily, Powerful over all things. T'hou doest as Thou wishest and decreest what Thou wiliest, 0 King of Kings, 0 Sovereign of grace, 0 Ancient in Thy loving‑kindness, 0 Possessor of bounty and generosity and graciousness, 0 Healer of ills, 0 Sufficient in time of need, 0 Light of Lights, 0 Light above all light, 0 Manifestation of all that is revealed,O Merciful, 0 Compassionate. Have compassion, then, on the bearer of this page, through Thy Most Great Mercy aind Thy Most Mighty Bounty, 0 Bountiful, 0 Gracious; and guard Iiim through Thy protection from all that his heart detests. Thou, verily, art the Most Powerful of the Powerful. The glory from God be upon thee, 0 rising sun! I bear witness unto that which God hath borne witness for Himself, that there is no god but Him, the Mighty, the Beloved.
(Baha' Allah, in Ad"a, pp.206‑8)

5 152 [i.e. Bahá']
Praised be Thou, 0 my God, I and all things bear witness that Thou art God, no god is there but Thee. From all eternity, Thou hast been sanctified from ttie mention of all things, and unto all eternity Thou shalt be as Thou hast ever been, no god is there but Thee. In Thee is our final destination. I ask Thee, 0 God, my God, to protect the bearer of this white page from evil and affliction, from plague and pestilence. Thou, verily, guardest whomsoever Thou wiliest and Thou, truly, hast encompassed all things in Thy knowledge. I have placed my Self under Thy protection and Thy custody. Guard it, then, 0 Protector of the worlds.
(Baha' Allah, in Ad"a, pp.208‑9)

6 Prayer for the protection of whomsoever wishes to carry it.
Lord, Thou knowest that the souls are encompassed by calamities and misfortunes and surrounded by afflictions and disasters. Every affliction circles about man and every catastrophe leaps upon him like the assault of a serpent. No refuge or sanctuary is there for them save Thy protection and custody, Thy guard and Thy defence. 0 Merciful Lord, make Thy protection my shield and Thy defence my paradise and the courtyard of the gate of Thy oneness my refuge, and Thy guard and protection my fortress and sanctuary. Protect me from the evil of self

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and desire and guard me from every affliction and disorder, from every trial and hardship. Thou, verily, art the Protector, the Guardian, the Custodian, the All‑Sufficient, and Thou art, truly, the Merciful, the Compassionate.
('Abd al‑Baha', Munájáthá‑yi 'Abd al‑Bahá', p.66)

XXI	THE LONG HEALING PRAYER (ANTA 'L‑KAFi)
A literal translation of the opening verses, designed to show the technique of the original:

By Thee, 0 'Al', by Thee, 0 Waf', by Thee, 0 Bah'. Thou arte the Káf'and Thou art the Sháifand Thou art the Báq', 0 Báq'. By Thee, 0 Sultán, by Thee, 0 Raf 'án, by nee, 0 Dayyán. Thou art the Káft and Thou art the Shdft and Thou art the Btáq', 0 Btáq'. By Thee, 0 A had, by Thee, 0 Samad, by Thee, 0 Fard (? Farad). Thou art the Káf' and Thou art the Sháfand Thou art the Báq', 0 Báq. By Thee, 0 Subhán, by Thee, 0 Qudsán, by Thee, 0 Must'án, Thou art the Káf'and ‑fhou art the Sháf' and Thou art the Báq', 0 Báq. By Thee, 0 'Alfm, by Thee, 0 Hakm, byThee, O'Azm. Thou art the Káfand Thou art the Sháfi‑ and Thou art the Báqf, 0 Báqf.

The official English translation of these verses is as follows:

He is the Healer, the Sufficer, The Helper, the All‑Forgiving, the All‑Merciful.

I call on Thee 0 Exalted One, 0 Faithful One, 0 Glorious One! Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, 0 Thou Abiding One!

I call on Thee 0 Sovereign, 0 Upraiser, 0 Judge! Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, T'hou the Abiding, 0 Thou Abiding One!

I call on Thee 0 Peerless One, 0 Eternal One, 0 Single One! Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, 0 Thou Abiding One!

I call on Thee 0 Most Praised One, 0 Holy One, 0 Helping One! Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, 0 Thou Abiding One!

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I call on Thee 0 Omniscient, 0 Most Wise, 0 Most Great One! Thou the Sufficing, Thou the Healing, Thou the Abiding, 0 Thou Abiding One!

	(Bahá' Alldh, Lawh‑i mubárak‑i Anta 'I‑Káf,
		English trans. The Healing Prayer, pp.2‑3)
(Reproduced by kind permission of Bahá'i‑Veriag)

LAWH‑1 ISM‑1 A'ZAM BY 'ABD AL‑BAHA', ON THE MEANING OF THE "GREATEST NAME"
As regards the explanation of Monsieur Angelmarm (?) coticerning the writing of the Greattest Natme on the ringstonc, atitliotigli it is faiirly close to the truth, ),et he should potider tiie matter most deeply and nieditatte thoroughly upon it. It is made up of two letter bá's and four há's. T'he interpretation of the bá' has been written in explanation of the words Bism Allah al‑rahinan al‑rahim; since it is a very detailed explanation it is unnecessary to repeat it here ‑you must refer to it. The rcpetition of the bá'indicates the station of the Hidden and Manifest. As for the four há's, these are the pillars of the Temple of Unity, and together add up to ten, for one and two make three, three and three six, six and four ten; this station is referred to in the verse of the Qur'an: "We completed them with ten" (Qur'an 7:142: "And We appointed a meeting with Moses for 30 nights, which We completed with ten other nights, so that his whole time with his Lord amounted to 40 nights").
Moreover, the numerical equivalent of the letter há' [itself] is five. This há' is the há' of the reality (huwiyyat) and essence of the Most Merciful, which is manifest and clear in the number five, which is the numerical equivalent of the word Báb. Therefore, in the Greatest Nanie as it appears on the ringstone symbol, the bá' has been joined with the há'.
Likewise, the Greatest Name is manifest in that symbol, its numerical equivalent being nine, for nine is the numericail e(Itiivaileiit of Bahal'. Multiply it by the word Báb, which equals five, that is nine times five, which makes 45. In ttie same manner multiply the five, which is the number of Báb, by nine, which is the number of Bahá'‑ that is 45. This number is the numerical equivalent of the word Adam (Adam).
Likewise, when you add together the units which make up the number nine, they equal 45 ‑ one and two is three, three and tliree is six, six and four ten, ten and five 15, 15 and six 21, 21 and seven 28, 28 and eiglit 36, 36 and nine 45. In the same way, if you add up the units in the number Báb 151, they come to 15 ‑ one and two make three, three and three make six, six and four ten, ten and five 15, which is equivalent to the number of Hawá (Eve), which is in agreement with the tradition "I and 'Ali are the parents of this people".
The meaning of Adam is the reality that bestows bounties, is manifest and active, for in him are comprised the outward manifestations of the divine names and attributes, and the various states of the All‑Merciful. Eve is the reality that is dependent, on which bounties are bestowed, which is subservient and influenced, for it is under the influence of all the divine names and attributes. This, then, is nearer to the inner mystery of the arrangement of the ringstone symbol.

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Know also that the three horizontal lines represent the World of God, the World of Command, and the World of Creation, for they are the sources of the [divine] influences. The World of God is the source of the grace of the Almighty; the World of Command is the pure and refined mirror in which the Sun of Reality is manifested; and the World of Creation is the source of the acquisition of effulgences which appear through the medium of the Most Great Channel, that is the recipient of the grace of God and the bestower of grace upon created things.
Since the true ba' which is the universal reality passes down through the three grades from the highest summit to the lowest centre and shines forth in each grade, it is the unifier and revealer of all the worlds. On the horizon of ancient grandeur, two brilliant stars are shining and luminous: one star is on the right, the other on the left. And this great mystery is the two shapes that have been drawn upon the left and right of the Greatest Name on the ringstone symbol. The mystery concerns the manifestation of Baha' Allah and the Bab. Although the two shapes on right and left are in the form of a star, they refer nevertheless to the Temple of Man, which consists of a head and arms and two legs. Upon thee rest the Glory of Glories.
(Ishrdq Khávarl, Má'ida, 11, pp.101‑3)

XXIII	SOME BAHA'I AND SHAYKHI INTERPRETATIONS OF
69 THE MYSTERY OF INVERSION"
At least three other forms of the devices given on pages 23 and 50 may be found:'

This cipher is frequently encountered as a representation of the greatest name in works on Islamic magic by both Shi'i and Sunni authors. As is commonly the case in such matters, attempts have been made to demonstrate the orthodoxy of the cipher by tracing it back to holy individuals from the early period. Thus, for example, Ahmad alBuni, who describes it in detail, cites the authority of 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abbas, a cousin of the Prophet frequently referred to as the source for ahadilh, for the actual form of the cipher. He goes on to give statements about it and its efficacy from Dhu 'I‑Nun al‑Misri, Abu 'I‑Darda', Ibn al‑Warraq, and 'Ali. Leaving aside the probably insoluble question of the actual origin of this figure, it seems likely that most of the variants found in different works are based on a poem attributed to 'Ali and quoted by al‑Buni. The poem is as follows:

Three sticks in a row after a seal; above them the semblance of a straightened lance
A blind mim without a tail, then a ladder unto all that is hoped for, but which is not a ladder
Four things like fingers in a row, pointing to good deeds, but without a wrist
And a h,á'that has been split, then an inverted wáw like the syphon of a phlebotomist, but not a blood‑letting cup
This is the name whose worth is magnified; if you were ignorant of it before, know it now
0 bearer of the great name, take sufficiency in it ‑ you shall be preserved from misfortunes and shall be kept safe
It is the name of God, may His glory be gloried, unto all men, be
2
they Arab or non‑Arab.

Apart from the three Arabic letters mm, há'and wáw, it seerns likely that the symbols employed in the cipher are, like the letters in most Islamic "magic alphabets", ultimately derived from real or supposed

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characters from pre‑Islamic Arabic scripts such as Lihyanite, Thamudic and Safaitic, or from the Berber tifinagh script. 3 ThiS is not, of course, to suggest direct conscious or knowledgeable borrowing of the type which would enable us to "decipher" the name, but to indicate its probable relationship to other alphabetic systems used in Islamic magic. Many of the symbols used in Babi talismans and the Baha'i ringstone symbol are based on characters from these magical alphabets, in particular the "spectacle letters" that are one of the basic elements of them.
The cipher already reproduced above (see p.50) also appears in variant forms, mainly because it too is based on reported verbal descriptions. The main alternatives are:

These last two forms are mentioned by Shaykh Taqi al‑Din Ibrahim ibn 'Ali al‑Kaf'ami (d.900/1495) in his commentary on a work entitled Janna al‑aman. In a discussion of the third of these ciphers, Karim Khan Kirmani states that he knows of no evidence for its having originated with one of the Imams, and that it is clear from al‑Kaf'ami's description that it is intended to be written on the palm of the left hand as a cure for colic and flatulence (?); it is nothing more than a medical charm of 4
uncertain antiquity.
There is, as we have noted, a complex interpretation of the letter waw which is seen with its tail stretched back over the other elements of the first series of devices, thus: . This interpretation is based on part of a letter from Shaykh Ahmad al‑Ahsa'i, which is cited in the Lawh‑i qiná', a letter from Baha' Allah to Hajj Mulla Muhammad Karim Khan Kirmani, the Shaykhi leader. 5 This letter is virtually incomprehensible without some kind of commentary and my translation is, for that reason, more than usually tentative.
Baha' Allah introduces his quotation of al‑AhsaTs letter by explaining that, when he was in Iraq, Mirza Husayn Qummi brought him a copy of it and stated that the Shaykhis (? of Karbala) had requested him to explain its meaning. He refused to do so other than allusively, however, on the grounds that he could find no one truly seeking divine knowledge. He now challenges Kirmani either to provide an interpretation or to seek one from him. The letter, he states, was written in answer to a 6
question regarding the words "the Qa'im [exists] in the loins". He

begins his quotation at the point where al‑Ahsa'i commences his explanation:

In the Name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate. I reply that it has been transmitted that, after the expiry of alif Iám mfin sád by alif Iáiii rá'the Mahdi shall arise, upon him be peaee. And the alif has come upon the end of the sad and the sad is with you, wider than the two thighs, and how can it be one of the two? And also, the waw is [composed of] three letters, six and an alif and six. 7 Six days have elapsed and the alif is the completion, no more need be said, and the [other] six refers to the other days. Otherwise, why was the going back produced, for it is the mystery of inversion for the cipher of the chief (sirr al‑tankfs fi‑ramz al‑ra'is)? And if there should be acknowledgement on the part of someone else to the remaining six, the matter will end in the Proof and the greatest name will appear in the two alifs standing upright in the word which is two letters from God, for they are both I I and with them [i.e. the two alifs] they are 13. And there has appeared the waw which is Ila', and where is the division? But the unit between the six and the six is decreed for the expiration of the inim sad by the mim ra' and the secret of the six and the 60 has appeared in a sixth of it, which is a quarter of it, and all of the sixth which is the quarter with ttie alif both inserted in it. And its mystery is the descent of the alif from the wide point with the six and the six, and the second descended in the blessed night with the 11, which [? the night] is that which is the mystery and the first concealed name manifest in the mystery of Thursday; and the mystery shall be completed on Friday. And the pure water shall flow forth upon the day when the sky shall come with manifest smoke. All of this is in the wati, inverted frotii ttie mumbled Ila', so where is the union before the confirmer of the disjunction? There is no other in the single nor between it, otherwise it would be other than single. And we make such parables for the people, but only the knowledgeable shall comprehend them.

This passage, together with a number of others from Shaykhi literature, has been understood by later Baha'i writers to encode a prophecy relating to the date of the appearance of the Qa'im and has been interpreted accordingly. According to Aqa Mirza Haydar 'Ali Isfahani, the words "And the alif has come upon the end of the sad, and the sad is with you, wider than the two thighs, and how shall it be one of the two?" may be interpreted as follows: in the abjad system, the letter sad belongs to the tens (it equals 90) and alif to the units (it equals 1). When the alif comes

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to the end of the sad (i.e. 99), the hundreds are reached (100). When the letters lam, mim and sad are calculated, they add up to 160, and when we add the previous 100 to this, we get 260. "The two thighs" are a reference to the units and tens, since a standing man takes the shape of the number 11 (which contains both tens and units). So al‑Ahsa'i is saying that the sad must be made to go beyond the units and tens and must be given the rank of the hundreds (i.e. it becomes 900). Since he said at the beginning "the alif has come upon the end of the sad" (now 999), this raises the whole thing to 1000. And when 260 is added to 1000 it becomes 1260, "the year of the appearance of the promised one" (i.e. 1260 A.H./1844 A.D.). Al‑Ahsa'i says "how can it be one of the two?", meaning how can the sad be accounted as belonging to the units or the tens, "because if it does not reach the stage of the hundreds, the purpose in constructing the year of the manifestation would not be attained. ,8
The following sentence, beginning "and also the waw is [composed of] three letters . . ." is interpreted on the basis of various Baha'i scriptural texts as follows: the waw as pronounced has three letters, a waw = 6 (which refers to the "six manifestations" before the Bab ‑ according to the Twelver Shi'a, Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad); an alif (which refers to the appearance of the Bab, the Qa'im of the House of Muhammad); and a waw = 6 (which refers to the universal manifestation of Baha' Allah, which appeared after the alift The "mystery of inversion" refers to the appearance of the second waw after the first waw; that is, after the first six manifestations the alif "rising up at the command of God" will arise, and after it the universal manifestation of God will appear in the form of waw with the numerical value of six, which indicates that the manifestation of Baha' Allah will be the equivalent of all past manifestations. 9
In a letter to an individual called "Asad" (Asad Allah), Baha' Allah relates the idea of the first waw being completed by the alif to the Quranic verse "We created the heavens and the earth in six days" (50:38; cf. 7:54; 103; 11:7; 25:59; 32:4; 57:4), stating that the (first) heaven and earth had been folded up like a scroll, that is the heavens raised in the Qur'an, together with their suns, moons and stars (which are the Vama', mystics, laws and religious systems (sharayi') have all ended with the alif between the two waws.10
The "mystery of inversion (sirr al‑tankis)" itself is related in several Baha'i texts to the Islamic tradition (obviously an echo of Matthew 19:30; 20:16; Mark 10:31; or Luke 13:30) "He shall make the highest of them the lowest and the lowest of them the highest", the understood meaning being that, in the new creation, the true worth of men will be the inverse of their outward rank.' 1 A further meaning is given by 'Abd al‑Baha' in a letter to Mu'awin al‑Tujjar Naraqi, that all the revolution

ary events of the past would be reproduced exactly in the subsequent revelation.' 2 The word "chief" (at‑ra'is) in the following phrase is interpreted by 'Abd al‑Baha' as a direct reference to Baha' Allah. In the exordium to a tafvr written by him on the Quranic verse "He knows the unseen and reveals not His unseen to anyoile" (72:26), he refers to the letters of the title Baha' and continues: "he desired to free them froni vain fancy and to draw them nigh unto the known; he sent down to them the explanation and gave them tidings of the "remaining six" and their appearance in the realm of creation and explained to them the mystery of the inversion and the appearance of the chief; and when he appeared, all created things were thrown into confusion . . .‑ 13
The basic Baha'i interpretation of the first pairt of this text owes something to statements maide by a]‑Ahsat'i hiniself and by Sayyid Kazim Rashti. Although it is clear that there is some relationship between al‑AhsaTs original theory and later Baha'i use of it, his intentions have been distorted by some niodern writers. 14 One of the matin points at issue is the idea tliait the wavi, refers to ttiree days: al‑dunyá, al‑tilá and al‑qiyáma al‑kubrá. This is discussed by al‑Ahsa'l in a letter written in 1226/1811, in which he deals with the topic of the watt, in the greatest name, in the course of answering a question on the nature of the Imam's existence in the realm of hurqa1ya. The relevant passages are as follows:
The days are [to the number of] three. He said, exalted be He, "remind them of the days of God" (Our'an 14:5). The first day is the World (al‑dunya), the second is the Primal (al‑ula), which is the day of his rising up (qiyám) and his return (raj'a) with his fathers, on them be peace, and their followers (shi'a), and the third is the day of the great resurrection (al‑qiyama al‑kubra). In the Ziyára alját?ii'a [are the words] "the proofs of God unto the people of the World (al‑dunya) and the Hereafter (al‑ákhira) and the Primal (alula).‑ And that Time is subtler and its people are subder and its places are subtler to the extent that, at its end, the subtlety of his T'ime shall be 70 times greater than that of this Time. And this is the meaning of my statement that he is in hurqa1ya and that he is in the eighth clime . . .
	. . . And when the World ends, its last minute shall be the first
minute of the Primal. 'Ali, on him be peace, referred to this in his
khutba, w!hen he said, "I am he that stands between the two gulfs
(al‑lulunja ' y‑ti)". 15 and in the blessed name transmitted from him,
which is this:

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The inverted waw is the Qa'im, on him be peace, and his being inverted is a reference to his return, while his being a waw is a reference to his form. They have [? he has] said that the first waw is a reference to the six days in which al‑dunya was created, while the second waw is a reference to the days in which al‑ula was created, and the alif between them is a reference to the fact that he is the Qa'im [rising up] between the two rivers. The Qa'im, on whom be peace, shall return in al‑ula, not in the archetypes and, as regards his departure [? from hurqalya], he will . . . [take on the nature of each of the realms he passes through]. The birth of the shi'a and their marriage and life are in the true bodies and the independent souls, the truth and independence of which reside in their relationship to the truth of these true bodies . . . The truth of al‑dunya with regard to al‑ula is like that of the shadow with regard to the one
16
who casts it. God guides to the straight path.

One of the main problems in commenting on this concept is the absence, as far as I am aware, of any later treatment of it in Shaykhi literature. Al‑Ahsa'i himself does not appear to have elaborated upon the idea, though he does discuss the meaning of the principal terms in his commentary on the Ziyára al‑jámi'a (mentioned above), which is sufficiently close to the schema proposed in al‑Risála al‑Rashtiyya to allow us to grasp the main trend of his thinking. He begins with a presentation of the fundamental meaning of the phrases "people of [this] world (al‑dunya) and the last (al‑akhira)", in which the concept of this "material world" is contrasted with the "hereafter". The definition of al‑ula, however, is more problematic: "the meaning of the first (alula) is the return (raj'a) of the Family of Muhammad [i.e. the Imams], or the rise of their Qa'im, or [the rise of] most of them. It is called al‑ula (the first, the primal) in relationship to al‑akhira (the last)."
Having given these basic definitions, he immediately turns to consider how "these three days are called al‑dunya and al‑ula and al‑ukhrá [f. of al‑ákhar, the other; also used to mean 'the hereafter']". In order to demonstrate that these are three distinct periods, he cites two traditions commenting on the Qur'anic verse "and remind them of the days of God" (14:5). The first is from (Hashim ibn Ahmad) Muthanna 'I‑Hannat: "I heard Abu Ja'far [i.e. Muhammad al‑Baqir, the fifth Imam] say: 'the days of God [consist of] the day on which the Qa'im shall arise, and the day of the return (al‑kurra), and the day of resurrection". The second is in the tafsir of 'Ali ibn Ibrahim: "the days of God are three: the day of the Qa'im, and the day of death (al‑mawt) and the day of resurrection (abqiyama)."
Al‑Ahsa'i notes that, in these traditions, the rise of the Qa'im or the return (al‑raj'a) is treated as a day distinct from the day of resurrection

(y,aii,i?i al‑qiyama), which laitter is referred to ais al‑akhira, allid distinct
also from al‑dunya. This day (of the rise of the Qa'im or al‑raj'a) cannot
properly be termed al‑dunya because this latter is expressed as "nearer"
than the return (of the Imams) or the rise of the Qa'im. Nor can it
properiy be termed al‑akhira, becaiuse the qiyanta is after it all](] tile
qiyama is al‑akitira. In the traditions, there are references to al‑dun , ya or
to al‑raj'a and the rise of the Qa'im, or to al‑akhira. In the interpretation
of the words "the days are three", only the rise of the Qa'im, al‑raj'a,
and al‑akhira were mentioned, but not al‑dunya. The reatson for this is
that the Imam was threatening ttie punishinent thatt would befall men;
this punishment can occur in the first three days mentioned, because al
dunya is the place where warning (of the punisliment) takes place (i.e.
not the punishment itself).
He himself, however, has stated that "the days are three: al‑drinya, the rise of the Qa'im or al‑raj'a or the return of most of them (the Imams), and al‑akhira." This is because the rise of the Qa'im and alraj'a are one in nature (in respect of justice, the establishment of the truth, the removal of iniquity, and the destruction of the barrier of taqiyya). They only differ with respect to the return of the Imam of the Age (i.e. the rise of the Qa'im), inasmuch as "return" refers to (new) life after death, whereas the Qa'im is still alive (i.e. he does not need to return from the dead since he is not dead but only in occultation). 17
It is, obviously, pointless to try to develop an entirely consistent schema out of the above. At its most basic, it would seem that al‑Ahsa'i thought in terms of three days or ages, the first the present state of things (al‑dunya), the second the day of the appearance of the Qa'im and the return of the Imams (al‑ula), and the third the last, general resurrection (al‑qiyama; al‑akhira). To this extent, there is some justification in the Baha'i interpretation of the inverted waw referred to in his letter as a reference to three ages. But it is also, I think, apparent from the foregoing and from a wider reading of al‑AhsaTs writings on related subjects (as, for example, his discussion of the meaning of the creation in six daiys) 18 that he did not coiiceive of a rattlier crti(le. liiieatr movement of three successive ages, but a much more sophisticated system in which concepts of time, space, movement and so forth are elaborately interrelated. There is, in general, a tendency in Baha'i writing to oversimplify the often highly complex theories of al‑Ahsa'i, most notably in references to his rejection of "physical resurrection" in favour of "spiritual resurrection" or a "physical mi'raj" in favour of a "spiritual i?ii'raj".19
	It is also unclear how far al‑AhsaTs scheme of three ages is to be
related to the perception of immediate or imminent events. Sayyid
Kazim Rashti also refers to this concept of "three days" in his Shari * I
al‑khutba al‑tuyinftyya, but he does not seem to have connected this to

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contemporary developments. These latter he interprets instead in terms
of a scheme of two cycles (dawratán) of Islam, one an age of outward
observance, the other an age of inward truth. This second age he
believed to have begun at the commencement of the thirteenth Islamic
century and to be connected with the appearance of al‑Ahsa'i. Many
early Babis also adopted this latter schema or variants of it.20

NOTES
1.	For a fuller treatment of this topic, see MacEoin, Some Bahd'i and Shaykhi interpretations of "the mystery of reversal", Bahd'i Studies Bulletin I/i (1982), pp. 11‑23.
2.	Shams al‑ma'arif al‑kubriá wa latd'if al‑'awdrif, quoted in Anawati, Le norn
	supr8me de Dieu, see pp.23‑8.
3.	For a comprehensive list, see Ibn Wahshiyya, Kitab shawq al‑mustaham ff ma'rifa rumaz at‑aqlam, in J. Hammer, Ancient Alphabets and Hieroglyphic Characters Explained (London 1806) and S. Matton, La magie arabe traditionelle (Paris 1977), pp. 129ff.
4.	Hajj Muhammad Karim Khan Kirmani, letter to Hajj Mulla Mahdi
	Khurasani, in Majma'a al‑rasa'il 67 (Kirman n.d.), p.236.
5.	Printed in Majma'a‑yi alwah‑i mubaraka, pp.85‑6. On the Lawh‑i qind', see
	Mdzandar5n!, Asrdr al‑athar, IV, p.519.
6.	It was, in fact, written in 1197/1783 in response to a request from Shaykh Musa ibn Muhammad al‑Sayigh. See full text in Hajj Muhammad Karim Kh5n KirmAni, Risala ft jawjb at‑Shaykh ifusayn *ibn al‑Shaykh Muhammad al‑MazFd', in MajmWa al‑rasa'il 61 (kirman n.d.), pp.51‑3.
7.	I.e., when the letter w is written out as a word it becomes waw; the abjad
	values of w is 6, thus six followed by alif followed by six.
8.	Letter cited by Ishraq Khivari, Rahiq‑i makhtC4m, I (Tehran 130 B.E./
	1973), pp.679‑80.
9.	Interpretation given by Ishr5q Kh5vari, Rah1q, 1, pp.680‑81; cf. letter from Shoghi Effendi to KhAvarli in idem (ed.), Md'ida‑yi asmani, III, pp.4‑5; letter of Baha' Allah to "Asad" in ibid, 1, pp. 15‑17 and Rahiq, 1. pp.686‑8; idem, letter in Md'ida, 1, pp.12‑13, Rahiq, 1, pp.684‑5
10.	Md'ida, 1, p. 16, Rahiq, 1, p. 687; cf. letter to Mulla Ahmad Hisari in Md'ida,
	I, pp.14‑15, Rahiq, I, pp.685‑6.
11.	See Baha' Allah, letter in Md'ida, 1, pp.12‑13, Rah1q, I, pp.684‑5; idem, letter to Mulla Ahmad Hisari, in Md'ida, 1, pp. 14‑15, Rahiq, I, pp.685‑6; idem, letter to "Asad", in Md'ida, 1, p.16, Rahiq, 1, pp.687‑8; idem, letter in Md'ida, 1, p.14; Rahiq, 1, p.690; 'Abd al‑Baha', letter to Mu'awin alTujjar Naraqi, in Md'ida, 11, pp.19, 34, Rahiq, 1, p.688.
12.	In Md'ida, II, pp.19, 34, Rahiq, I, p.688.
13.	In Rahfq, 1, p.682.
14.	This is substantiated in MacEoin, "Baha'i and Shaykhi interpretations".
15.	This is the sermon generally known as al‑Khutba al‑tutunjiyya, the authenticity of which is sometimes questioned. The tutunj is here glossed as khairi or gulf, and lower down in the same passage as nahr or river. Elsewhere, alAhsa'i provides a significantly different interpretation of this phrase,

explaining the words as referring to man as standing midway between the higher and lower worlds, see Sharh al‑fawd'id (Tabriz 1272/1856), p. 286.
16.	Al‑Ahsd'i, al‑Risdla al‑Rashtiyya, in JawL!mi' al‑kilam, 1/2 (Tabriz 1273/ 1856), p.103. A similar interpretation of the waw in the greatest name is given by Rashti in his Sharh al‑khutba al‑tutunjiyya, see M5zandar5ni, Asrdr, V, p.240. On al‑Ahsa'i s views on the nature of man, see MacEoin, Ahsd'i, Encyclopaedia Iranica, I, pp.674‑9 and idem, Cosmogony and cosmology vii, in Shaikhism, Encyclopaedia Iranica, VI, pp.326‑8.
17.	Al‑AhsWi, Sharh al‑ziydra, 1, pp.159‑61.
18.	See his Sharh al*fawd'id, pp.135‑58.
19.	See, for example, H.M. Balyuzi, The Bdb (Oxford 1973), p.3.
20.	For details of this theory, elaborated in Rashti's Sharh al‑qas[da, see MacEoin, From Shaykhism to Babism: a study in charismatic renewal in ShN Islam, pp.212‑14.

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PASSAGE FROM SURA AL‑HAJJ ON THE RITES OF THE SHIRAZ HOUSE, BY BAHA' ALLAH
0 Muhammad, when the fragrances of holiness have drawn thee unto them and turned thee unto the land of the All‑Merciful that thou mayest discover the breezes of divine praise, go forth then by permission of Thy Lord, the Generous, unto the spot around which circle the angels that are nigh unto God, they that sing His praises about the Throne. At the moment when thou arisest from thy place, seeking to turn in the direction of God, thy Lord, take off from thy body the robe of self and desire and from thy feet the sandals of sin and wickedness, for thou art entering the spot that none may reach save he that casteth behind him all that are on earth and in the heavens, wherein naught but the greatest righteousness shall be accepted, if thou art of them that comprehend, and around which circle the Mount of Command and the Land of Holiness and the Sinai of Glory and the hearts of them that ascend at all times unto the heaven of nearness. None other shall ever attain unto it nor be mentioned by God as having reached it, even should he dwell there for a thousand years as you number them.
And when thou hast journeyed from thy self and from the world and its people and hast travelled unto God, thy Lord, and hast reached the spot at which thou beholdest the outskirts of the city, dismount and stop where thou art and say: "Spirit and light and glory and praise be upon thee, 0 City of God, 0 dwelling‑place of His names, 0 treasury of His attributes, 0 source of His bounties, 0 mine of His grace, 0 place of the manifestation of His effulgences that have encompassed all creation. I bear witness that from thy outskirts appeared the Primal Point li.e. the Bab] and the ornament of pre‑existence and the eternal mystery and the universal word and the fixed decrees and the hidden secrets. Thus hast thou surpassed all others in receiving grace from God, the Protector, the Self‑Subsisting."
Lift up, then, your hands unto God, thy Lord, with humility and selfeffacement, with submission and pleasing contentment, and say: "0 Lord, praise be to Thee for the wonders of Thy gifts and the graces of Thy bestowals. How can I give thanks to Thee, 0 my God, for having provided me with the visitation of Thy House and having honoured me with it and having chosen me for this bounty in which none hath preceded me and having taught me what none hath known but Thee? Wherefore, 0 my God, I have fled from the house of my self and taken refuge in the place in which Thy most exalted Self hath been established; I have taken flight from whatever hath kept me back from drawing nigh unto Thee and gone for protection unto the precincts of Thy most great mercy. Deprive me not, then, 0 my God, of that which belongeth unto Thee and cause me not to be occupied with any but

Thee. Thou, verily, art the Mighty, the Forgiving. 0 Lord, make me steadfast in Thy love and in the love of Thy friends, and cause me not to be of them that have disbelieved in Thy verses after they were sent down, them that have mocked them after their perfumes had encompassed aill creaited things atid aill that wais brotiglit into exi.,‑,tetice in the visible aind the itivisible worlds. 0 Lord, setid unto iiie the rod of Thy grace and bounty that I may cleave therewith the sea of self and desire, pass over it, and reach the pavilion of the glory of Thine exaltation and the tabernacle of the holiness of Thy protection, lest there be made manifest from me that which Thy good‑pleasure abhorreth. Thou, verily, art He that doeth as He wiliest, and Thou art, in truth, the Lord of this firmly builded House."
Ride on, then, until thou reachest a spot at which there shall be between thee and the city only a thousand steps, be it more or less. Whereupon, dismount and immerse thyself in water, as thou hast been commanded in the Book of God, the Protector, the Exalted, the SelfSubsisting. And when thou comest forth from the water, trim thy moustache, then clip thy nails, then shave thy head, then make use of the best of perfumes, then put on the best clothes you are able to afford. And if thou art not able to perform that which we have commanded thee, be thou not saddened, for God hath pardoned thee; fle, verily, is the Powerful, the Forgiving, the Pardoner. Strive, then, within thN'self that, at the moment thy eye falleth upon the city and thou comest close to it, thy heart may be purified from the mention of all things in such wise that thou mayest cast behind thee all that hath been created between the earth and the heavens, for thou art at that moment walking before the King of all creation, thy Sovereign of names and attributes. Thus instructeth thee the Pen of God, thy Lord and the Lord of all things, if thou airt of them thait know.
And when thou hast performed that which we have comniatided thee, rise from that spot and turn your face towards the House. T'hen stop, then raise your hands in humble devotion to God, the Powerful, the Protector, ttic Beloved, and say: "0 my God, this is the spot throiigh which the eycs of ttiem that desire Thee have been solaced aind the hearts of Thy lovers have been attracted; this is the utmost goal of them that seek Thee and the highest desire of them that yearn for Thee. This is the spot wherein the eyes of them that know Thee have rained tears in their separation from I'hee and the faces of them that have attained unto Thee have turned yellow in their longing for Thy beauty. I beseech Thee, 0 my God, by it and by the effulgences of the lights of the glory of Thy oneness and the flashes of the manifestation of the holiness of Thy divinity, to release me from the fire of my self and to sanctify me from all that is unworthy of Thy sovereignty. Thou, verily, art the Protector, the Self ‑Subsisting."

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Lower, then, thy hands until they reach the level of thy cheeks, then magnify God (with the phrase Allahu akbar) nine times, then raise thy hands yet again unto God, thy Lord and the Lord of all that hath been and all that is, and say: "0 my God, this is the city wherein Thy sovereignty was made manifest and the signs of the glory of Thy grandeur appeared and Thy verses were sent down and Thy word was completed and Thy might was exalted and Thy proof shone forth and Thy mercy encompassed all things and all that is in the heavens and the earth. There beareth witness unto this my self and my heart and my tongue and beyond them blessed servants. Whereupon, I beseech Thee, 0 my God, by it [the city] and all that hath been manifested in it to remove that which hath kept me far from the shore of the holiness of Thy mercy and bounty and shut me out from the precincts of the outpouring of Thy grace and bestowal. Clothe me, then, 0 my God, in the robe of Thy graciousness and bounty. Thou willest and Thou art, truly, the Mighty, the Exalted, the Beloved. Give me, then, to drink, 0 my God, from the fountain of the glory of Thy knowledge and the living waters of the holiness of meeting with Thee, waters which, were but a drop from them to be sprinkled upon all created things, they would be raised to eternal, everlasting life, standing before Thy face and the manifestations of the flashes of the lights of Thy countenance. Thou, verily, art the Mighty, the Exalted, the Holy."
Lower, then, thy hands and walk upon the ground with the dignity of God and His tranquillity. And as thou walkest proclaim the singleness of thy Lord (with the phrase "there is no god but God") then proclaim His greatness (with the phrase Allahu akbar), then His holiness (with the phrase Allahu aqdas), then His majesty (with the phrase Allahu amjad). Follow, then, in the ways of the messengers and the manners of them that are near to God, saying: "Here am 1, 0 my God, here am 1; greetings unto Thee, and the light be before Thee." Repeat these words as much as will not cool down the fire of thy ardour and passion. Thus we have instructed thee in truth that thou mayest be of them that act in accordance with what they have been commanded. Know, then, that thou didst answer thy Lord with these words when He ascended the Throne and called upon all created things with His words "Am I not your Lord?" Those words are the secret of those others, if ye be of them that ponder upon the mysteries of their Lord. Indeed, shouldst thou behold with the eye of thine inner being, thou shalt at that moment behold Him raised upon the thrones of all created beings, crying: "No god is there but Me, the Protector, the Self‑Subsisting." Know, then, 0 pilgrim, thy value and station at that moment. Give thanks, then, to God that this has been bestowed upon thee and that He hath aided thee therein. Verily, there is no god but Him; creation and command are His and all act according to His bidding. Blessed art thou, 0 servant, in that

thou hast entered the land of holiness, the Paran of the Spirit, and the Sinai of Command. Yea, shouldst thou maike sharp thy siglit, thou wilt behold all about thee circumambulating. By God, 0 servant journeying from thy home, should God open thy vision and shouldst thou turn thy gaze above the head unto the heavens, thou wilt behold the sanctuaries of holiness, the habitations of loving‑fellowship, the people of the pavilion of the heavenly kingdom, the inhabitants of the thrones of the kingdom of might, the bodies of the holy ones among the manifestations of the realm below and the kingdom above all moving in the heaven of holiness above thy head, extolling with thee the unity, the greatness, the holiness, and the majesty of the Lord of the City and of him that appeared from it and arose therein. Thus shalt thou behold the matter, if thou art of them that see with the eyes of the spirit.
And when thou reachest the spot at which thou art coiiie nigli urito the gate of the city at a distance of 20 paces, stop at the command of God, thy Lord, the Lord of all things, and the Lord of this praiseworthy scene. Extol, then, the greatness of God 19 times, then address the city on my behalf, saying: "May God curse a people that have interposed themselves between us and the lights of thy holiness, 0 City of God, and who have kept us back from inhaling the fragrances of the holiness of Thy oneness and from dwelling within the precincts of the glory of T'hy mercy and from standing in the courtyard of the gate of the outpouring of Thy compassion." Turn, then, thy gaze unto the most great spectacle, in the direction of the wall of the city and whatsoever hath been created therein and hath existed within it, for upon all of these hath fallen the eye of God, the Mighty, the Protector, the Self‑Sufficient. Say: "0 wall of the City! Blessed be thou, inasmuch as there shone forth above thee the lights of the sun of thy Lord, the Exalted, the Most High. 0 trees of the City! Blessed be ye, inasmuch as the breezes of holiness have been wafted upon you from the direction of eternity. 0 air of the City! Blessed be thou, inasmuch as the breath of God, the Mighty, the Powerful, the Beloved, was spread within thee. 0 earth of the City! Blessed be thou, inasmuch as the feet of thy Lord, the All‑Merciful, have walked upon thee and the form of the Praised One hath passed over thee in the days when all were wrapped in the veils of their own selves."
Walk, then, until thou reachest the city; and when thou hast attained its presence and arrived at its gate, place thy face upon the dust of the gate, that thou mayest discover the fragrance of thy Lord, the Exalted, the Most High and may be of them that are nourished with the water of life. Know, then, that from its dust is manifested the decree of water, and from its water the decree of air, and from its air the effect of fire, and from a torch ignited from it hath appeared the decree of 'B' and 'E' [hukm al‑káf wa 'I‑nún ‑ i.e. kun, "be"], if thou art of them that know.

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This is how we have described it unto thtee in the land and among these people that are unconscious in the drunkenness of self. Otherwise, by Him in Whose hand is my soul, an atorr! of its dust is more glorious in the sight of God than all that hath beten created in the meadows of eternity and all that hath been decreed in the tablets of destiny within the mystery of fate in the realm of the Jivine decree. Thus do we cast upon thee the secrets of the cause, thaf thou mayest be of them that comprehend.
When thou hast kissed the dust and derived a blessing therefrom, raise up thy head, then stand and magnify God (with the phrase Allahu akbar) 19 times, then walk with the dign1ity and tranquillity of God and with His grandeur and majesty until you arrive before the House. Then stop and say: "I bear witness by my tonigue and my soul and my spirit and my body that this is the spot whe:reon prostrate themselves the inhabitants of the empyrean realm and the denizens of the kingdom of God's decree and they that inhabit the, highest mansions of eternity behind the veils of grandeur. Through it all things have been made manifest and through it the breezes of bounty have blown upon the forms of all the worlds. And this is the ~spot whence the inhabitants of the Concourse of Eternity derive their blessings and the hearts of them that are established between earth and h(‑‑aven obtain their illumination. Every day the dwellers of the crimson chAmbers sweep its courtyard and the angels that are nigh unto God brush it with the tresses of the spirit. And this is the spot wherein the Beauty of the All‑Merciful appeared and in His own person ascended the Throne of Forgiveness and decreed that which He willed for all creation. He, verily, is the One that doeth as He willeth and decreeth as He desireth pnd performeth whatsoever He wisheth. I bear witness that, from a handful of this dust, the first Adam was created, wherefore was he named "the father of man" (Abu T Bashar) in the kingdom of names, and God made him His remembrance amongst all created things."
Bow down, then, with thy face upon the dust, then place thy right cheek upon it and say with my tongue: "Praised be Thou, 0 God, my God. This is Thy servant that hath detached himself from all directions, turning in the direction of Thy oneness, and hath freed his soul from all apart from Thee, and hath clung to the cord of the bounty of Thy grace, and hath come in his completeness unto the meadows of the glory of Thy forgiveness. Cause to blow, then, 0 my God upon my heart the breezes of the glory of the holiness of fhy bounty and upon my inner being the fragrances of the majesty of the glory of Thy favours. Cast me not away disappointed, 0 my God, from Thy gate or despairing from the manifestations of the sun of Thy t)ounties. Thou, verily, art the Powerful over what Thou wiliest and Thou art the Protector, the Mighty, the Powerful."

Then stand and turn to the right of the House, in the direction of thy Lord, the Exalted, the Mighty, the Wise. Raise, then, thy hands unto God, the Exalted, the Most High and say: "Praised be Thou, 0 God, my God. I have raised the hands of my hope unto the heaven of Thy bounty and grace, and I have fastened the fingers of my reliance upon the cord of Thy grace and favours. I beseech 'I'hee by him through whom Thou didst clothe all created things with the robe of Thy guidance and didst raise to life all existence from the power of Thy compassion and generosity, not to lock the door of Thy knowledge upon the face of my heart nor the door of Thy mercy upon my soul. Catuse me, tlien, 0 my God, to be such as will be worthy of the power of the glory of T"hy singleness and the majesty of the holiness of Thine eternity. Thou, verily, art the Gracious, the Bestowing, the Mighty, the Generous. And 1, 0 my God, have become detached from mine own self, hastening unto T'hy Most Exalted Self, and have fled from mine own abode and stood before Thy most pure and most glorious House. Wherefore, I beseech Thee not to leave me unto myself nor unto them thait keep baiek mankind from tile love of Thy beauty and debarThy servants from Thy mighty and unbending path."
Circle, then, about the House on my behalf seven times. Thus commandeth thee the Ancient Beauty and teacheth thee what none in all the worlds doth know. And at the time when thou art circumambulating the House of the Lord, make mention of Him in thy heart and upon thy tongue and turn within thyself unto the direction of the mighty Throne. And when thou hast completed thy circurnambulation, present thyself within the first portico, before the door of the sanctuary, then, stand, then raise thy hands unto the heaven of the outpouring of the grace of thy Lord, the Mighty, the Inaccessible. And I counsel thee that, at that time wlien thou dost raiise up thy liatticls, raiise them with such yearning that thereby the hands of all beings may be raised up towards the heaven of the grace of thy Lord. And when thou desirest to call upon God, thy Lord, call upon Him with such devotion that thereby the tongues of all atoms may utter the praise of thy Creator and maly make mention of Him that brought thee into existence, the Powerful, the Mighty, the Wondrous. And if thou be not thus, it is not fitting for thee to stand in the spot whereon have stood the bodies of the holy ones and them that are nigh unto God. Nor art thou worthy of thy relation unto my Self nor thy habitation beneath the shadow of my love, which God hath made a cutting sword whereby to separate the unbelievers from them that extol His oneness. And when thou hast raised thy hands unto the clouds of the mercy of thy Lord, the Mighty, the Knowing, the AllInformed, say: "I bear witness that no god is there but He; He is alone, no companion is there for Him nor likeness nor deputy nor comparison nor rival nor equal nor similitude for His sovereignty, the Exalted, the

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Inaccessible, the Most High. From all eternity He was one in His Essence and one in His attributes and one in His deeds and unto all eternity He shall be as He hath ever been in the glory of His majesty and the sovereignty of His sublimity, such that the mystic knowers have confessed their inability to attain unto the meadows of the holiness of His knowledge and the devoted ones have admitted their powerlessness to ascend unto the heaven of His mention and His praise. He, verily, is the Protector of all things and He, in truth, is the Mighty, the AllGenerous. I bear witness that the Primal Point [the Bab] our Lord the Exalted, the Most High is, truly, His Manifestation in the realm of the empyrean and His Appearance in the kingdom of the decree and His Dawning‑place in the domain of destiny. Through him all created things are brought to life and all existence is renewed and the balance of justice hath been set up upon the station of praiseworthy glory. Through him the Bird of the Throne hath crowed and the Dove of Glory hath warbled and the resurrection of the command hath come to pass and all that lay hidden in the treasuries of hidden glory hath been made manifest. Through him the heavens of pre‑existence were raised up and the clouds of bounty were elevated unto this most holy and most notable sky and the sun of grace and beneficence shone forth from the horizon of resplendent holiness. Through him the oceans of verses surged in the kingdom of names and attributes and the time set for the command arrived with that which was decreed in the tablets of inaccessible majesty. And I bear witness that, through him, the veil of mystery was removed from the beauty of grandeur and the secrets of the unseen were revealed in the kingdom of the divine decree, and that through him every poor and needy one ascended unto the heaven of riches and every transient one rose up unto the dwelling‑places of eternal life and every sick one was raised to the abodes of healing within pavilions of shining light. And I bear witness that this is the spot wherein Thou didst ascend the Throne of the glory of Thy unity and didst bring into being all creation, both former and latter, through the power of Thy will and Thy desire, and wherein the clouds of Thy grace rained down upon all created things.
"Wherefore, I beseech Thee, 0 my God, by Thy hidden and most great name and Thy concealed and most perfect word whose manifestation Thou didst promise unto Thy servants at the time of Mustagháth [i.e. at the time of the appearance of him whom God shall manifest], to bring me unto the shore of the ocean of Thy forgiveness and to erase all that I have enumerated of my most great sins and my most mighty transgressions; then forgive, 0 my God, my father and my mother and my family and those whom I have related unto myself, them that have believed in Thee and Thy signs. Make, then, for me, 0 my God, a seat of truth by Thy side and cause me to be united with those of Thy

servants that are nigh unto Thee. I ask Thee, then, 0 my God and my Beloved, not to make me to be one of them that circle about Thy House in Thy land and deny Thy sacred House within tiie Manifestations of Thy Self and the Dawning‑places of the glory of Thy Self‑Subsistence and the Locations of the glory of Thy Lordship. Thus, 0 my God, is my utmost wish and desire. Thou, verily, art the Sovereign, the Powerful, the Mighty, the Wise. I ask Thee, then, 0 my God, by Thy beauty whereby the suns of the glory of Thy bounty have been made luminous and the rays of the lights of the holiness of Thy generosity flashed forth, to cause me not to be distressed upon the day whereon every soul shall be distressed, on which the possessors of pomp and leadership shall be puffed up with pride, on which the feet of them that have attained shall slip, on which the lamentation of all things shall be raised, and on which every resplendent and shining light shall be darkened. Take hold, then, of my hand, 0 my God, with the hand of Thy grace and favours and deprive me not on that day of the fragrances of the glory of Thy holiness nor from hearkening unto the melodies of Thy new creation, and cause me not to follow upon that day behind every croaking, sinful one. Open my eyes through Thy grace that I may recognize Thee by Thine own Self, not by that which is other than Thee, and that I may behold the wonders of the lights of Thy Beauty by what Thou hast bestowed upon me through Thy bounty, not that which belongeth unto men. For Thou hast not created any proof for Thyself save Thine own Essence, nor any evidence save Thy signs. Thou, verily, are fie that ariseth, the Ruler, the Knowing, the All‑Informed. Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds."
Whereupon, end thou thy pilgrimage, for we have not permitted anyone to approach closer than this unto the sanctuary, for before that spot shine the lights of the Essence from behind the names and the attributes. And, apart from that, courtesy must be observed, for that is one of the best of all attributes in the sight of God, King of the earth and the heavens. Thus have we sent down upon thee the command with a shining and manifest proof. It is our desire that, from every city, one should go forth on my behalf and for his own sake to visit the House of God and that he may be a pilgrim. By God, at every step mercy and grace shall descend upon him from the heaven of resplendent holiness, and at the same time when he raises his foot for the first step and sets it down, God shall forgive his sins and the sins of his mother and his father and all that are related unto him. Thus hath the grace of thy Lord encompassed all created things, whether of the first or of the last. By God, whosoever visiteth the Hoiise, it is ais if he hath visited God v%,itliin the pavilion of the glory of meeting with Him and the tent of the majesty of His Beauty. T'hus do we inform thee of the call that is mighty by the side of the Throne.

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Whosoever visiteth the House as we have commanded him, Godshall raise him up after his death within the patradise of majesty and grandeur in such a beauteous form that the dwellers of the Concourse on High shall be illumined by the lights of his face, and all that are in the exalted heavens shall be commanded to appear before him and to circle about him and to make their pilgrimage unto his beauty every morning and evening. 0 trustees of God upon the earth, strive unto the most great mention, and cast away all that is in your hands and turn your faces unto the Abode of God, the Mighty, the Powerful, the All‑Knowing. Be ye steadfast, 0 people, in this station that, if all that are on earth should rise up against you, ye would not pay the least attention to them and would remain firm in the faith of God. The unbelievers shall prevent you performing what God has sent down upon you on account of the rancour that is in their breasts. But God shall do as He willeth through His word; He, verily, is the Powerful, the Mighty.
Know, then, that we have written concerning pilgrimage to the House detailed and vast tablets, but we have not sent them until now. If God wills, we shall send them in truth. He, verily, is the Guardian of the messengers. 'That which we have sent is what was sent down from the kingdom of divine power in a brief form, for the angels that are nigh unto God and the inhabitants of the Exalted Concourse love to be brief in their outward acts. And inwardly, let there be at all times those that perform the pilgrimage. Thus have we taught thee and made known unto thee the paths of holiness and guided thee unto the shores of manifest grace.

(Amr, IV, pp. 12G‑33)

XXV	PASSAGE FROM TIIF SURA AlA1AJJ ON THE' RITE.S OF
THE BAGHDAD HOUSE, BY BAtIA' ALLAH
He is the Everlasting, the Manifest. It is incumbent on whomsoever
desireth to turn to the most holy direction, to conic into the presetice of
God, the Mighty, the Knowing, to hearken unto the caill of God, to
behold His beauty, and to inhale the perfume of God, the Mighty, the
Powerful, the Exalted, the Great, that he should go forth from his
house, journeying unto God, uiitil lie enteretli the city tlialt li',Itli I)ccfi
named "the Abode of Peace" [Dar al‑Salam ‑ Baghdad]. And when he
arriveth there, let him magnify God (with the phrase Allahu akbar), his
Lord, with the tongue of his heart and with his outward tongue until he
cometh unto the river. And when he reacheth it, let him put oil his best
clothes and then perform ablutions ais God hattli coinniattided Iiiin. And
when he washeth his hands, let him say: ‑0 Lord, this is water that
Thou hast caused to flow forth through Thy command in the neighbour
hood of Thy sacred House (baytika 74 * taráttt). As I have washed my
hands with it, 0 my God, atThy command, wash me, then, from every
stain and sin and omission and from all that Thy good‑pleasure
abhorreth. T‑hou, verily, art tile Mighty, the All‑Powerful."
Then let wash his faice, saying: ‑0 Lord, this is my faice tliatt 'I'lioti hast purified through Thy will. I beseech 'I'hee, then, by the power of tile glory of T'hy singleness and the wonders of the nanies of tile iiiatnifestaitions of Thy caiuse, to cleanse it of all save 'Fhee. Guard it, then, from turning to any but 'I'hee or from beholding them tliait have failed to seek Thy mainifest, spotless, mighty, ain(i generOLIS 13eatutV."
Let him, then, cross the bridge with the dignity and comportinent of God, magnifying God (with the phrase Allahu akbar) until he reaches the end of the bri(ige. 't'hen let him turn in the direction of t[ic I louse, saying at his first step: "0 Lord, this is the first step that I halve set down in the path of Thy good‑pleasure and the first pace that I have taiken though Thy %w,ill. I haive fled, 0 my God, from aill directions in ttie directioii ofThy gi‑aice atti(I fatvotirs, aiiid I liaive taiket) flight frotii myscif and my dcsircs aiiid from all saive 'I'hce in the direction of 'I'Iiy bounty and blessings. 0 my God, disappoiiit not them that have hoped for the clouds of Thy mercy and shut not out them that have sought the showers of the glory and generosity. Here am 1, 0 my God! I have sought Thy House, the House round which circle the dwellers of the Celestiatl Concourse and beyond them the souls of them that are nigh unto 'Filee among the holy ones. I beseech Thee by the former and by the latter not to prevent my eyes from beholding the wonders of the lights of the holiness of 'rhy beauty, nor to withhold from my face the manifestations of the breC7es tliatt blow from the dawn of Thy meeting, nor to keep back from my fieart the fragrances of the glory of Thy revelation and

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inspiration. Thou, verily, art the Possessor of bounty and might, of grace and mercy and sovereignty, and Thou, truly, art the Possessor of power and strength and grandeur, and Thou, in truth, art near to answer them that pray to Thee."
Then let him glorify God (with the phrase Allahu abha) and begin to perform the circumambulation. Let him circle about the House seven times, and, when he has completed this action and is come before the door of the House, let him stand and beg forgiveness from God 70 times. Then let him say: "0 my God and my Lord. Praise be unto Thee for having shown Thy kindness and generosity to me in that Thou hast caused me to stand in the spot wherein naught is seen but the tokens of the glory of the sovereignty of Thy oneness and naught is witnessed save the flashes of the lights of the sun of Thy beauty. I beseech Thee by Thee and by Thy Self to purify me from the mire of the world and from its vanities and to burn from the surface of my heart the veils that have kept me back from entering into the floods of the oceans of the glory of Thy unity and have shut me out from entry into the fields of the holiness of union with Thee and meeting Thee. 0 Lord, turn me not back disappointed from the gate of Thy mercy and send me not away in loss from Thy House. 0 Lord, forgive me and my parents and my brethren and my family and my kinsfolk, those of them that have believed in Thee and in Thy most great verses in the manifestation of Thy most exalted Beauty. Thou, verily, art the Mighty, the Beneficent."
Let him, then, walk with the utmost gravity and glorify God (with the phrase Allahu abha) until he reacheth the gate, then let him stand and say: "0 my God, this is the spot wherein Thou didst lift up Thy voice and in which Thy proof was made manifest and Thy signs shone forth and Thy beauty rose above the horizon and Thy verses were sent down and Thy command was made visible and Thy name was raised up and Thy mention was spread abroad and Thy power was made perfect and Thy sovereignty was exalted above all that are in the heavens and the earth."
Let him, then, address the House and its land and its walls and all that is upon it, saying: "Blessed be thou, 0 House, inasmuch as God hath made Thee the spot whereon His feet have trodden. Blessed be thou, 0 House, inasmuch as the glances of the glory of His greatness have fallen upon thee. Blessed be thou, 0 House, inasmuch as God hath singled thee out and made thee a dwelling‑place for His own Self and a location wherein to establish His sovereignty. No earth hath surpassed thee, unless it be the earth that God hath chosen above all the shrines of the world, by that which hath been written down by His Pen, the Preserver. Blessed be thou, 0 House, inasmuch as through thee God distinguish between the fortunate and the wretched from this day unto the day whereon the All‑Merciful shall shine forth with the lights of a wondrous

holiness. Blessed be thou, blessed be thou, inasmuch as God hath made thee the balance for them that believe in His unity and the uttermost abode of them that know Him, and hath sanctified thee from the knowledge of them that hate Him and them that disbelieve in Him, in such wise that none may enter thee save the believer whose heart God hath tried in its faith, nor may any be able to approach thee save him from whom there are wafted the breezes of the praise of God. Blessed be thou, inasmuch as God hath singled thee out for them.among His servants that are nigh unto Him and tliei‑n among His creattircs that aire devoted to Him. None may touch thee save them that have utterly detached themselves from all that are in the heavens and the earth, in whose hearts there is naught but the radiance of the lights of the glory of His oneness and in whose inner beings there is naught but the manifestations of the effulgences of the holiness of His eternity. This is a station for which God hath chosen thee, wherein thou shouldst pride thyself above all the worlds. Blessed be thou and him that built thee and raised thee up and served thee and carried water unto thy roses, and blessed be he that hath entered thee and he that hath gazed upon thee and he that hath discovered from thee a breath of the robe of the Joseph of God, the Mighty, the Powerful. I bear witness that he that hath entered within thee, God shall cause him to enter the holy sanctuary on the day whereon the Beauty of the Essence shall be established upon a mighty throne, and He shall forgive the sins of him that taketh refuge in thee and entereth beneath thy shadow, and shall fulfil his needs and shall raise him up on the Day of Resurrection with such beauty that his kindred of both past and future shall be illumined by it."
Let him, then, prostrate himself with his face upon the dust of the gate and call upon his Lord like one that is detached and repentant, relating himself to God and saying: "0 Lord, I am he that hath acted wrongly towards Thee and rejected Thy beauty, for my self and my desires preoccupied me. Thou, verily, art the Knowing, the AllInformed. 0 Lord, since I have recognized Thy Self, I seek pardon for my former state aind for whatever appeared from my tongue and weiit forth from my mouth and entered into my thoughts. I have returned unto Thee with all my being; Thou, verily, art the Forgiving, the Compassionate. 0 Lord, when Thou didst make known unto me the places of Thy command and didst awaken me from my sleep attid my heedlessness, I set forth from my house in the direction of Thy House, turning my eyes towards Thy bounty and Thy forgiveness. Thou, verily, art the Most Merciful of the Merciful. 0 Lord, I have come unto Thee with that sin that was heavier than all that is in the heavens and the earth and greater than the creation of all existence, until I have stood before the gate of Thy House, from which no sinner hath been turned away disappointed; I have bowed myself down upon its dust, humbling myself

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before Thy beauty, abasing myself before Thy sovereignty, and making myself as nothing in Thy presence. 0 Lord, have mercy on me through Thy compassion and graciousness and ordain, then, for me a seat of truth by Thy side. Make me, then, one of Thy servants that have turned in repentance unto thee. 0 Lord, forgive me my sins and my transgressions and all that my hands have committed. Thou, verily, art the Mighty, the Generous."
Then let him raise his head and seek forgiveness from God with this mighty, this great invocation: "0 Lord, I seek forgiveness from Thee by my tongue and my heart and my soul and my mind and my spirit and my body and my corporeality and my bones and my blood and my skin. Thou, verily, art the Forgiving, the Merciful. And I seek forgiveness from Thee, 0 my God, by the invocation whereby the fragrances of mercy have blown upon the people of rebellion and through which the sinful have been clothed in the beauteous garment of Thy forgiveness. And I seek forgiveness from Thee, 0 my King, by the invocation whereby the power of Thy clemency and Thy grace is made manifest and whereby the sun of loving‑kindness and bounty shineth forth above the forms of the sinful. And I seek forgiveness from Thee, 0 Forgiver of my sins and my Creator, by the invocation whereby the wrongdoers hasten in the direction of Thy pardon and graciousness and through which the seekers stand at the gate of Thy mercy, 0 Thou the Merciful and Compassionate. And I seek forgiveness from Thee, 0 my Lord, by the invocation that Thou hast made a fire that burneth away all sins and rebelliousness from every one that hath repented and returned to Thee, regretting what he hath done, weeping over his actions, and secure in Thee, and through which the bodies of all created things are purified from the defilement of sins and wrongful actions and from all that Thy mighty and all‑wise Self abhorreth."
Then let him enter into the House with dignity and tranquillity, as if he beholds God in the realm of His command and the kingdom of His House, until he enters the courtyard (al‑sahn) and comes before the qibla that was singled out for the raising up of the throne of might upon it. The let him raise his hands and turn his gaze in the direction of His bounties and say: "I bear witness in this place where I stand that there is no god but Him alone; no companion is there for Him nor likeness nor peer nor rival nor deputy nor equal nor similitude; and that the Primal Point (nuq!a al‑úlá [sic], the Bab) is His servant, His glory, His might, His greatness, His reality, His power, His sovereignty, His majesty, His kingship, His strength, His honour, His nobility, His benevolence, and that through him His beauty shone forth and His face was purified and His proof rose above the horizon and His evidence was perfected and His argument was completed and His signs were made luminous, and through him all that are in the heavens and on the earth were raised

to life and they that are in the kingdom of command and creation were resurrected, and through him the breezes of holiness were wafted upon all the worlds. And I bear witness that he whom God shall manifest [i.e. Baha' Allah] is the truth, no doubt is there concerning him; he is come with the lights of a wondrous holiness, and through him are recreated the heavens and the earth and the people of the former and the latter generations. Blessed is he that hath attained unto his days and that entereth his gate and is honoured with meeting him and circleth around him and prostrateth himself before him and visiteth the dust of his feet and standeth in his presence and is of them that arise."
Then let him say: "0 Lord, this is Thy House wherein the breezes of Thy bounty and generosity have wafted and wherein Thou hast shone forth in the innermost heart of mystery upon all the manifestations of Thy names and the dawning‑places of Thine attributes. None is informed of this save Thee, the All‑Knowing. 0 Lord, this is Thy House from which the signs of Thy grace have been made manifest unto all the worlds and wherein there befell Thee what befell Thee on the part of them that believed and them that disbelieved. Thou, verily, wast patient in all this, notwithstanding Thy power and Thy sovereignty. Thou, truly, art the Knowing, the Wise, the Mighty, the Powerful. 0 Lord, this is the spot whereon Thou didst walk with Thine ancient feet and wherein Thou didst raise up Thy voice and Thy melodies and didst make heard Thy call and Thy singing, with wondrous and honeyed tones. 0 Lord, this is the spot wherein Thou didst sit upon the Throne of all created things and didst exalt T'hyself through the tongue of Thy power above all that are in the heavens and on earth. 0 Lord, this is the spot wherein Thy gaze was turned in the direction of Thy bounty and wherein the oceans of power surged within Thy hidden and concealed and guarded word. 0 Lord, this is the spot wherein was Thy cause within the inystery of mysteries, and wherein Thou didst not move Thy lips as Thou didst wish, and wherein Thou didst conceal Thy radiant face, and wherein Thou waist hid(leti in the most utter coticeatimcnt aind behind ttie (letisest of veils, in such wise that tione among all creation recognized Thy Self. 0 Lord, this is Thy House that was shamed after Thee by Thy servants, who looted whatever was therein and plundered all that was within it; thus did they dishonour Thee and make war against Thee in their heart of hearts and break Thy covenant and shatter,rhy bond; yet didst Thou conceal all this and didst pass over them through Thy wondrous bounty. 0 Lord, divest me not of the bounty of Thy protection, nor take from me the garment of Thy favour and pardon, nor cause me to be far removed from the precincts of Thy mercy, nor deprive me of the fountain of Thy exalted grace. 0 Lord, sanctify me from all save Thee and bring me near unto T'hy Self and honour me with meeting T'hee. Thou, verily, art ttie Powerful, the Knowitig, the tJticlerstiii(iiiig, itie

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Bringer to life, the Vivifier, the Slayer. 0 Lord, cause me to attain unto that which Thou hast willed for those of Thy servants that are nigh unto Thee. Ordain, then, for me the best of what Thou hast ordained for the sanctified among Thy chosen ones."
Let him then be silent within himself and be at rest in his innermost being. Then let him turn in his heart and with his hearing in the direction of the House. If he should discover the fragrance of God and hear His call, he may be assured within himself that God has forgiven him his sins and has passed over him and relented towards him and beholdeth him as on the day whereon he was born of his mother. But if he should not discover the fragrance of God, the Mighty, the Powerful, let him perform again the ritual on this day or one another day until he discovereth it and heareth [the call]. This is that which hath been decreed by the pen of a glorious and wise one upon the tablets of a hidden holiness. Thus doth God open the gates of grace and bounty unto the face of the heavens and the earth, that perchance men may not deprive themselves of the mercy of God and His bounteousness. 'This, verily, is true guidance and a remembrance from us unto all the worlds.
(Amr, IV, pp.109‑17)

XXVI THE LAWH‑INAQUSBYBAHA' ALLAH He is the Mighty.
This is the Garden of Paradise, wherein hath been raised the melody of God, the Protector, the Self‑Subsisting. Wherein have been established the maidens of eternity whom none has touched save God, the Mighty, the Holy. Wherein the Nightingale of Eternity hath warbled upon the bratiches of the Lote‑tree beyond which there is no passing, with a melody that hath filled with astonishment the minds of all men. Wherein is that which bringeth the poor ones nigh unto the shores of the ocean of wealth and guideth mankind unto the word of God. T'his, verily, is a manifest truth.
In Thy name "He", for Thou art, verily, "He", 0 "He".
0 monk of divine unity, toll the bell, for the Day of God hath been made manifest and the Beauty of the All‑Glorious hath been established upon the Throne of manifest holiness.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Hud of the decree, blow upon the trumpet in the name of God, the Mighty, the Generous, for the tabernacle of holiness hath been established upon the throne of inaccessible glory.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Countenance of Eternity! Strike with the fingers of the spirit upon the rebec of a wondrous holiness, for the Beauty of the Essence hath appeared clothed in a robe of shining silk.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 angel of light, blow into the horn in this revelation, for the letter há' hath come riding upon a letter of ancient majesty.
Praised be Thou, 0 fie; 0 lie that is lle; 0 Ile tliatt there is notie other than lie.
0 Nightingale of Splendour, warble upon the twigs in this garden, singing the name of the Beloved, for the Beauty of the Rose hath appeared from behind a heavy veil.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Songbird of Paradise, trill thou upon the branches in this wondrous age, for God hath shone forth upon all that dwell in the kingdom of earth.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Bird of Eternity, soar in this sky, for the bird of faithfulness hath winged its flight in an atmosphere of blessed nearneg‑ ‑

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Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Inhabitants of Paradise, sing and chant in the most melodious and charming of voices, for the song of God hath been raised behind pavilions of exalted holiness.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Inhabitants of the Kingdom, intone the name of the Beloved, for the Beauty of the Cause hath shone forth from behind the veils adorned with a shining spirit.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Inhabitants of the Kingdom of Names, bedeck the farthest reaches of heaven, for the Greatest Name hath come riding upon the clouds of a mighty holiness.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Inhabitants of the Kingdom of Attributes upon the most glorious horizon, make yourselves ready to enter the presence of God, for the breezes of holiness have breathed from the Spot wherein His Essence is hidden, and this is, verily, a manifest grace.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Paradise of oneness, rejoice within thyself, for there hath appeared the paradise of God, the Exalted, the Powerful, the Knowing.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Heaven of Glory, give thanks unto God in thine essence, for the heaven of holiness hath been lifted up in the sky of a gracious heart.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Sun of the kingdom of the world, cover thy face, for the Sun of Eternity hath shone forth from the horizon of a resplendent dawn.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 earth of knowledge, swallow all that you know, for the Earth of Knowledge hath been spread out within the Self of God, the Exalted, the Mighty, the Generous.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Lamp of the kingdom of the world, extinguish thyself, for the Lamp of God hath shone within the niche of eternity and the peoples of the heavens and the earth have been illumined by it.

Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 oceans of the earth! Cease ye the rolling of your waves, for the Red Sea hath surged at a wondrous command.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Peacock of Oneness, cry out amidst the bushes of the heavenly kingdom, for the melody of God hath appeared from every direction, near at hand.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Bird of Eternity, crow in the tliicket of the kingdom on high, for the Herald of God hath cried out from every unapproachable direction.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 Concourse of lovers, rejoice in your souls, for the days of separation are come to an end and the appointed time is come wherein the Best‑Beloved hath appeared in the Beauty of an inaccessible glory.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
0 People of mystic knowledge, be ye glad in your inmost beings, for the days of parting are past and certitude is come and the Beauty of the Youth hath shone forth with the ornament of holiness in the paraidise of a mighty name.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
Praised be Thou, 0 my God, I beseech Thee by Thy Day, whereon all days have been resurrected, and by Thy enumerating from it both former and latter times.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is fie; 0 fie that there is none other than fie.
And by Thy Name which Thou hast made a monarch in the kingdom of names and a ruler over all that are in heaven and on earth.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
That Thou mayest make these souls independent of all save Thee and bring them nigh unto Thee and cause them to be detached from all others save Thee. Thou, verily, art the Powerful, the Mighty, the Compassionate.
Praised be T'hou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
Maike ttiein, then, 0 my God, among those who testify to Thy
oneness and anione tho‑,P. whn	#I,‑:‑ ‑‑I‑	._

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such wise that they may behold none else but 'Thee and gaze upon none save Thee. Thou art, verily, Powerful and Mighty to accomplish this.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
Create, then, in their hearts, 0 my Beloved, the fire of Thy love, to such an extent that the mention of all save Thee may be consumed by it, that they may witness within their selves that Thou hast ever been in the loftiness of etemity, and that there has never been anything with Thee, and that Thou art as Thou hast ever been; no god is there save Thee, the Generous, the Mighty.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
For, should Thy servants who seek to ascend unto the heights of Thy oneness, establish themselves in the mention of aught else save Thee, the decree of unity shall have no validity in respect of them, nor shall the title of singleness find any conformation in them.
Praised be Thou, 0 He; 0 He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
And Praised be Thou, 0 God, my God. Since this is how matters stand, send down from the clouds of Thy compassion that which shall cleanse the hearts of Thy lovers and sanctify the breasts of them that adore 'Mee. Raise them up, then, through Thy exaltation and cause them to be victorious over all that dwell on earth. This is that which Thou didst promise Thy friends by Thy unerring words: "We desire to show Our grace unto them that have been made wretched on the earth and to make them leaders and to make them Our heirs."
Praised be Thou, 0 He; He that is He; 0 He that there is none other than He.
(Ad"a, pp. 141‑53; Ayyam‑i tis'a, pp. 100‑
6)

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Indexes
Technical terms
I abd', 11, 13, 67	dalil, 19
abiad, 147	dawd'ir, see dd'ira
ahwJb al‑hudd, 12	dhikrldhikr A1IJh1dhikr‑i ildhi, 5, 10,
adi'a, 6 (see also du'd)		13, 43, 46, 65, 69, 93
adhdn, 4, 11	diydfat‑i nfjzdah rCiza, 65
adlikir, 42, 46 (see also dhikr)	du'j, 66 (see also adt‑a)
al‑'adl, 22, 31, 101	al‑dunyd, 149, 150, 151
ahtlAth, 2, 145
ahrdz, see hirz	faqdha, 95 (see alsofiqh)
ai‑dkhira, 149, 150, 151	fard'id, 43
'alayhi Bahij'Allah, 47	al‑far~, 22, 31, 101
'alayhi Bahd' Alldhi Tabhd, 47	fiqh, 9
AI1Jhu a'azz, 14	furCV, 7
AIIdhu abha, 13, 35, 43, 46, 54, 55,
	60, 164	ghafara 'IIJh lahu, 47
Alldhu ajrnal, 14, 46	ghayr‑i mafrCid, 43
A114hu akbar, 14, 20, 30, 46, 53, 54,	ghusl, 28
	60,94, 163
A114hu amjad, 53	hadrat‑i a7d, 47
Alldlzu aqdam, 13	haiirat‑i markaz‑i mfthaq, 47
Alldlzu aqdas, 53	haiirat‑i mawId Tward, 47
Allahu athar, 29	ha~rat‑i nuqfa, 47
Alldhu a;zam, 13, 14, 19, 30, 46	hadrat‑i wall‑yi amr ARA, 47
Alldhu ailzar, 13, 14	haj*
			j, 4, 7, 9, 24 ff., 52 ff., 56, 57, 68
Allahumma, 13, 24	al‑hakam, 22, 31, 101
alwah, 41	haidl, 6
awhid', 6, 25	hararn, 56
awrdd, 42	hardin, 6
dydt, 95	hayakil, see haykal
		haykallhayakil, 7, 8, 16, 19, 48, 49,
baraka, 5, 58		50,98‑100
barzakh, 14	haykal al‑tawhFd, 11, 29, 41
batin, 15, 16, 18	haykal‑i huwiyyat, 17
bayl at‑'adl al‑a'zam, 37	haykal‑i insdnf, 16
bayt, 24	al‑hayy, 22, 31, 101
bism Alldh al‑amna'al‑aqdas, 14	hilf, 14
bism Alldh (al‑rahindn al‑rah[m), 14,	hirz, 5, 6, 19, 23
	16, 22, 101, 14i	hujja, 19
burhiin, 19	harqalyd, 14, 149
		huraf al‑hayy, 12, 74‑5 n. 48
chCzrqad, 68	huwiyya(i), 16, 143
da'ira, 19, 20, 22, 23, 31, 49, 1014	'ibadat, 4
ddirit, see da'ira	al‑'id al‑a'zam, 63
dakhma, 60	Mram, 4

182

183

	i'j4z, 17, 18	muhr, 6, 80 n. 205
	insan‑i awwal, 16	mundjdt, 66
	iqdn, 19	murtadd, 28
	al‑ism al‑a'zamlism‑i a'zam, 49 (see	mushrik, 28
		also 'greatest name')	mustaghath, 16, 19, 31, 46
	istidtal, 18	mustahabbdt, 6
	Oikaf, 27
			najdsa, 27
	jalla ismuhu 'I‑a'l,á, 47	najdsdt, 27
	jalla jald1uhu, 47	najis, 28
	jalla sultanuhu, 47	namaz, 6, 66 (see also saldt)
	Jamal‑i abhd, 47	naqidcin, 56
	Jamal‑i mubdrak, 47	nawafil, 8, 94
	Jamdl‑i qidam, 47	al‑nuqaba', 93
	jamrdt, 4
	jandba, 27
	jashn‑i a'zam, 64	qawluhu TaNd, 47
	jubba, 11, 67	qawluhu Ta'Id, 47
			qawluhu 'I‑'azfz, 47
	ka'ba, 25	qawluhu ta'41J, 47
	kafir, 28	al‑qayyCim, 22, 31, 101
	kalimat al‑tawh[d, 24	qibla, 11, 35, 40‑41, 55, 56, 57, 60,
	kashf, 15		64
	khutba, 4, 34, 62	qiydma, 9, 149, 151
	kullu shay', 16, 107	al‑qiy6ma al‑kubri, 149
	kurr, 30	al‑quddiis, 22, 31, 101
	laqab, 59	radiya 'Ildh 'anhu, 47
	ld ildha illd 714h, 53	al‑fiahtntin, 24
			rahmat Allah 'alayhi, 47
	makrah, 59	al‑rafa, 150, 151
	makrahdt, 6	rak'alrak'df, 10, 27, 38
	mansCis, 43	rawda‑khmin, 5
	man yuzhiruhu' Ildh, 12, 34, 40	raw4a‑khwdni, 5, 65
		(see also 'he whom God shall	rawda‑yi mubdraka, 56
		manifest')	saf, 34
	maqdm‑i a'14, 56	sajda, 11, 41
	mashiyyat‑i awwaliyya, 16	sald 'llah 'alayhi wa sallama, 47
	mashriq al‑adhkir, 66‑7	al‑salam 'alaykum, 14
	al‑masjad al‑jabha, 27	salat al‑jamd'a, 10
	masjid, 10	salat, 4, 8, 9, 10‑12, 27, 30, 31, 35,
	masjid al‑haram, 25		38‑42, 42‑3, 44, 46, 59, 60, 67, 68,
	masjid al‑hayy, 10		93, 110, 115 (see also namdz)
	maw'iza, j4	sdlik, 8
	mazdfiir al‑wdhid, 25	samd', 5
	ma?dhir amrihi, 12	qawm1jydm, 24, 51 (see also 
fasting)
	minbar, 66 (see also 'pulpits')	sharra, 2, 6, 19, 37
	mi'rdj, 93, 96, 151	sirr al‑lankfs, 147, 148
	mithildl, 11, 12, 25	subha,46
	mu'adhdhin, 11	sujCid, see sajda
	muballighin, 44	sunna, 3, 6, 4, 9, 64
	muharramdt, 6	yu'ud, 64

tqf~rr, 149	ivdhid, 16, 20, 107
!ahdra, 27	%,a‑j:ib, 43 (see also it‑Oftbat)
takbfr, 13, 30, 31, 60, 93	tvajibat, 6
fakhhs, 27	wudW, 4, 11, 12, 29, 30, 39‑40, 4 1,
takwit'j, 15		4~, 43, 51, 110
ta'qThtjt, 6
faqiyya, 151	yd baha' al‑abhd, 46, 49
!arfqdt, 5	yd bahTyu Tabhd, 46
fawdf, 26	yd' Ildh, 12
tasvhFd‑i afal, 10	yJ 'Ildhit Tniustaghtith, 46
tawhld‑i dhdi, 10	yawm‑i ba'that, 63
fawhId‑i 'ibdddl, 10	yawm‑i julfis, 64
tawh1d‑i sifat, 10
ta'zt‑M, 0, 31
tilisnuit, 6, 19	zdhir, 16, 18
	ziydralziydrdt, 5, 24 ff., 52 ff., 56, 57,
al‑tild, 149, 150, 151		58, 59
1 ulamd', 5, 18, 28, 67, 148	ziydraindma, 5, 26, 27, 43, 55, 58,
USCII, 7		59, 61, 64, 105‑6

Books/texts
Adra‑yi hadrat‑i mahbtib, 39, 46	Khasd'il‑i sab'a, 8
A'fn‑i Bd~,'36	Kitdb a'mdl al‑sana, see Sahifa a'mdl
Amr wa khalq, 42, 59		al‑sana
Anta 'I‑Kfift, 48, 141‑2	Kiffib at‑aqdav, 3. 37, 39, 39, 40, 42,
Ayydni‑i tis'a, 65		43, 51, 52, 53, 56, 59, 61, 62, 63,
			64, 65, 66, 67, 68; list of 
editions,
Bay‑dn, Arabic, 9, 10, 12, 13, 19, 25,		81‑2 n. 2.
	29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 62,	Kildb al‑asind', 35, 49
	63	Kilab al‑laltdra. 8, 27
Bay‑an, Persiain, 7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 16,	Kitdb‑i ha)‑tlikil‑i it‑tihid, 17, 76 n. 79
	19, 21, 24, 25, 27, 29, 31, 32, 34,	Kiidb‑i nuqtat at‑kfij, 35
	35, 36, 37, 41, 42, 62	Kittlib‑i Iyan]: sha'n, IS, 16, 17, 18, 15,
			49, 109
Chaluir sha'n, 13
		Lavvh Ahmad, 44, 121‑2
Dald'il‑i sab'a, 17, 18	Lawh‑i 6ishdrdt, 61, 67
Du'd al‑tahmid, 95	Lawh‑i ghuldm al‑khuld, 64
Du'd‑yi sahifa, 7	Laivh‑i hurt~fat, 76 n. 79
		Law~‑i ishrdqdt, 37
Fire Tablet, see Qad ihiaraqa	Lavvii‑i istn‑i a'zatn, 143 4
	Tmukhlisi‑ln	Lasvii‑i lavlaji'nzab'ath, 64
		Lawvh‑i in'allah al‑quds, 45‑‑0, 127‑30
Gospel, 23	Lawh i‑ndqtis', 21, 64, 169‑72
		Lawh‑i ru'yd, 64
Hasht bihisht, 36	Laivh‑i salat, 39
Ha),kal al‑din, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 19,	'Litany', 132‑3
	22, 24, 29, 30, 32, 33, 64	'Long Healing Prayer% 44 (also 
set
Hurfijdt‑i 'dhj,~‑at. 61

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184

185

'Marriage Tablet', 62	al‑Sah[fa bayna Tharamayn, 8, 19,
			j4,*93‑6
'Prayer after disturbed dreams', 123	Sahifa‑yi 'adliyya, 6
'Prayer for conception', 126	Saliát in time of need, 115‑18
'Prayer for morning and evening',	~aldt, three regular, 110‑14
	199	Shams al‑ma'arif, 21
'Prayers for table', 120	Sharh al‑khutba al‑tutunjiyya, 151
'Prayers for visions', 124, 125	Sharh al‑ziya‑ra at‑jamii'a al‑kabira,
Prayers and Meditations of		150
	BahaVilah, 39	Shu'an‑i khamsa, see Kitab‑i panj
			sha'n
Qad ihtaraqa Tmukhlisan, 46, 134‑7	Sara al‑hajj (Baghdad), 54, 163‑8
Qayyam al‑asmd', 6, 7,* 35	Sara at‑hajj (Shiraz), 52, 154‑62
Qur'dn, 7, 17, 18, 34, 43, 102, 148
		Tablet of Ahmad, see Lawh Ahmad
'Remover of Difficulties', 44‑5, 68	Tablet of the Holy Mariner, see
Risd1a fura' al‑'adliyya, 8, 27, 28		Lawh‑i mallah al‑quds
Risdla‑yi Jafariyya, 76 n. 79	'Talismanic Prayers', 13"
al‑Risala al‑Rashtiyya, 150	Tasbih al‑Kubrd, 95
Risala‑yi su'al wa jawab, 37, 40, 41,	Tasbrh Fatima, 97 n.4
	43,52,62	Torah 23
al‑Sahifa al‑makhzana, see Du'd‑yi	al‑Ziyara al‑jami'a al‑kabTra, 8, 27,
	q . a~rja		149
al‑Sahffa al‑Sajjddiyya, 97 n.5	Ziyaraindma for Bab and Bah5'
4ahifa a'mal al‑sana, 7		Allah, 86 n. 130

People/groups/places

Ab5da`i, Mirz5 Q5bil, 84 n. 56, 89 n.	al‑Ahsa'i, Shaykh Ahmad ibn Zayn
	202, n. 204		al‑bin, 14, 50, 14~, 149, 150, 151
'Abbas Effendi, 'Abd al‑Baha', 37,	'Alawiyya, 5
	39, 40, 42, 43, 44, 47, 48, 50, 51,	'AIA'i, Ni'mat Allah, 84 n. 47
	55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65,	'Ali Qabl Akbar, 88 n. 186
	66, 67, 68, 149, and passim	'Ali, Imam, 12, 16, 20, 23, 27, 50,
'Abbasid dynasty, 7		145, 149_
'Abbfid, house of, 58	'Andallb, Aqd 'All AshrAf Uhijini,
'ffendi
'Abd al‑Bahd', see 'Abbas E		67
Abraham, 148	'Attar, Muhammad Karim, 123
Abu 'I‑Dardi, 145	al‑~Xrabi, Muhyi TDin ibn, 15
Acre, 38, 55	Azali B5bis, 1, 36, 107
Adam, 148	Bab, Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad, the, 3,
Afnan, Abu TQAsim, 54		6, 7, 8, 10, 14, 15,.18, 20, 26, 27,
Afn5n, AqA Mirzd Aq5 (Sayyid		37, 47, 56, 65, 67, and passim
	Muhammad, Nfir al‑Din), 53, 54,	Bab, site of martyrdom of, 58
	86 n. 112	Babis, 35, 36, and passim (see also
Africa, 38		Kullu Shay'i, Azali)
Aft5bi, SarkhAb BAs, 89 n. 210	Bibis, numbers in Iran, 71 n. 2
Ahmad (son of the Bib), 25	Babul, 58

Baghdad, 45. 54, 55, 63	Goldziher, Ignaz, 2
Baha'ism, emergence from Babism,	Gulist5na, Abu 'I‑Q5sim, 89 n. 217
	1, 37, 72 n. 5
Bah5' Allah, Mirz5 Husayn 'Ali	Haifa, 56,61
	Nfiri, 1, 2, 3, 21, i6, 36, 37, 40,	Ilasan, Imam, 12, 20
	41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48, 52, 54,	He whom God shall manifcst, 11, 34
	55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63,		(see also man yuzhiruhu 'Ildh)
	64, 65, 66, 76, 68, 148, 149, and	Hur(ifiyya, 5, 15
	passim	1.1usayn, Imam, 6, 8, 12, 20, 55
Bah5'i community of Iran, I	t.lusayn 'Ali, see Bah5, Allah
BahYi World Centre, 57
Bah5'is, 3‑4, 68	Ibn al‑Warr5q, 145
BahYis, numbers in Iran, 72 n. 7	Imams, twelve, 26, 76n. 88
Bahji, 55, 56, 58	India, 38, 68
Barfurfishi, MuII5 Muhammad 'Ali	International Bah51 Archives, 57
	Qudd6s, 11, 27, 32, 35, 58, 74 n.	Iran, 58, 61, 67
	36, 104	Iraq, 61
Bektashiyya, 15	Isfah5ni, MirzA Haydar 'Ali, 147
Browne, E. G., xi, xiii, 67, 68, 77n.	Is*lam, popular,
	107	Ism5'iliyya, 5
al‑BCini, 21, 145	Israel, 57, 59
Burfjjirdi, Aq5 MirzA Husayn, 56
BushriVi, Mir Muhammad Husayn
		Jahrumi, H5ji Mirz5 Aq5, 85 n. 91
	Big, 88 n. 196	Jamshidi, Aq5 Jamshid Rustam, 87
BushrFj'i, MuII5 Muhammad Husayn,		n 153
	Bab al‑B5b, 11, 2~, 32, 35,54, 58,	Javan‑i Rawh5ni Dirikhsh, 82 n. 8,
	74 n. 36		n. 11
		Jerusalem, 24
Carmel, Mount, 56, 57	Jesus, 148
Chihrlq, 58
Coveniint‑breakers, 56 (see also	Karbala, 5, 6, 11, 28, 146
	naqidan)	Kh5vafi, 'Abd al‑Hamid Ishr5q, 65
		Khudid5d, 89 n. i18
Dabb5gh, I i 15jj Abu TQ5sim, 56	Khur5s5n, Bah5'is of, 89 n. 218
Dayy5n, M‑rzd Asad Allah Khii'i, 76	Kirm5ni, 1‑15jj Muhammad Karim
	n. 79		Kh5n, 14, 146
DhF5 TNfin al‑Misri, 145	Kullu Sliaty'i Babis, 36
Edirne (Adrianople), 46, 52	League of Nations, 55
Essence of the Seven Letters	i,etters of Truth, 12
	(= B5b), 12	Living, Letters of the, 10, 12, 25, 26,
Europe, 2, 38		279 33, 34, 35, 58, 74 n. 48 (see
			also huraf al‑hayy)
F5'iza Kh5num, 88 n. 182, n. 183	London,59
Fakhkh5r, Ust5d 'Ali, 89 n. 214
Fatima, 12, 20, 26, 95	Mikfj, 58
Fuifthi, Mirzi 'Abd al‑Majid, 88	Manshad, 43
	n.182	Mashhad, 59
Fur‑fitan, 'Ali Akbar, 87 n. 165, 88	Mdzandardni, Fddil‑i. Mirz5 Asad
	n.180		Allah, 42, 59
		Mazra'a, 58
gates, four, 26	Mecca, 4, 24, 56, 60

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186

187

Medina, 24	ShPi community of Baghdad, 55
Mevievis, 5	Shiraz, 25, 26, 54, 78n. 130
Mishkin Qalam, M1rz5 Husayn, 85	Shirdzi, Aq5 Sayyid Muhammad
	n. 80		Rid5, 86 n. 112
Miy5n‑daw‑5hi, MirzA Husayn, 85	Shir5zil, Hajj Mirza Sayyid
	n. 93		Muhammad, 86 n. 112
Moses, 148	Shirazi, Sayyid 'Ali Muhammad, see
Muhammad, 12, 16, 20, 26, 35, 103,		Bab
	148	Shoghi Effendi, 2, 37, 39, 42, 44, 47,
Muhammad 'Ali, Mirzd, 38, 41		50, 51, 54, 56, 57, 60, 62, 64, 65,
Mu~ammacl al‑B5qir, Imam, 150		67, and passim; resting‑place of, 59
		Siyah Chil dungeon, 58
Najaf5badi, Zayn al‑Muclarriblin, 39,	Sohr5b, Mirz5 Ahmad, 62
	85 n. 88	South America, ~8
Najibiyya Gardens, 63	South‑East Asia, 38
Nar5qi, MirzA Fadl Allah Mu'5win	Subh‑i Azal, Mirzii Yahy5 Nfirii, 20,
	al‑Tujj5r, 82 n. 14, 83 n. 16, 148		3~
Nass5j, Udji K5zim, 51	Slaft orders, 5 (see also tadqdt)
Nayriz, 35	~fifis, 15, 51
Nayirizii, Mirz5 Muhammad Husayn
	ibn Mirz5 Ahmad'All, 88 n. 192
		Tabasi, H5ji Mirzd Muhammad
Noah, 148	. Taqi, 97 n. 162
North Africa, 5	TabCiz, 27, 58
North America, 2, 38	Tabrizi, Mu'in a]‑Saltana, 7
Nuqjat al‑Bay5n (= Bab), 12, 76
	n. 83	Tafti, H5ji Akhund, 83 n. 16
Nuq!awiyya, 5	T5hira, see Qurrat al‑'Ayn
Nuq!a‑yi fila (= Bab), 76 n. 83, 166	T5kur, residence of Bah5' Allah in,
Nfirit, Mirza Husayn 'Ali, see BahA'		59
	Allah	Tehran, 35, 58
		Tigris, River, 54
Palestine, 56, 57	Turkey, 5, 58, 59
Port Said, 53
		Universal House of Justice, 37, 61
Qa'im, 9, 13, 24, 147, 148, 150, 151	Universal House of Justice, Seat of
Qassabchi, Hdjj Mahmfid, 55		the, 57
Qazvin, 35	UskFj'!, Mir 'Ali Asghar, 82 n. 9,
Qum, 61		n. 10, 83 n. 16, n. 27
Ourrat al‑'Ayn, 28
Rashti, Sayyid K5zimt 14, 149, 151	Waite, Louise, 67
Remey, Mason, 89n. 219	Wilmette, Ill., 67
Rosenberg, Mrs, 88 n. 179
		Yazd!, Mitzi Ahmad, 44
Schacht, Joseph, 2
Shah Chir5gh, 25
Shams a]‑Wuzari', 61	Zanjin, 35
Shaykhis, 146	Zarandi, Mirz5 Muhammad Nabil,
Shaykh Tabarsi, 26, 35, 58		52, 53, 54, 55, 58
Shi'a, 5, 11, 28, 103, 104	Zuhr5 Bigum, 54

General topics
'Abd al‑Baiha'. birth of, 63	dress, 7, 9, 67‑8
'Abd al‑Baha'. tomb of, 57
amulcts, 5, 19. 48	eggs, 9
',~rafat, (laiy of, 7	engraived stories, 21 ff., 49‑50
'Ash&A, 5, 6, 7
astrology, 5	faicces, 29
fasting, 7, 8, 24, 38, 41, 51 ff.. 93 4
Bib, birth of, 51‑2, 63; declaration	festivals, 32‑34. 63‑65 (see also Naiw
	of, 52, 63, 64; early claims of, 75‑6		Rfiz, Ridw5n, 'Id al‑Ghadir, 'Id
	n. 76; liouse of, Shiraz, 25, 52 , 54,		al‑Fitr, 'Id al‑Adha, 'Id al‑Akbar,
	56; martyrdom of, 63, 64; shrine		birth'of the B5t;,'birth of Bah5'
	of, 56, 58		Allah, dcattli of fiatlt,7i' Allah,
Badi' era, 107		declaration of the Bab, Day of the
Bahi' Allah, birth of, 51‑2, 63;		Covenant)
	death of, 63‑4; house of, Baghdad,	fish, cleaning of, 14
	52, 55, 56; tomb of, 41, 55‑6, 57	flaigellatioti, 5
bastinade, 27, 58	folk religion, 5, 73 n. 17
bathing, 9	Friday, 7. 12, 34, 65, 66
bigamy. 61‑2
birth, 4, 30‑31. 594)0	gematria, 5, 15
blood, 29	gold vessels, 29, 59
bone, 29, 41, 59	grades, five, 76 n. 79
burial, 4, 31‑2, 6(" 1	graves, visiting, 32, 61
		greatest name, 23, 49, 50, 61, 101,
calendar, Babi, 16, 33, 107‑8;		143 (see also al‑isin al‑a'zatn)
	Islamic, 7, 63, 64
call to prayer 8 (see also adlidn)	hair, 29, 41, 59, 68
candles, 61	hcaidstoiics, 51, 61
chairs, use of, 9, 42, 66	holy days, 63 ff.
charms. 5	honorifics, 47
circumcision. 4, 59	house of worship 66‑7 (see also
clay tablets, 5		mashriq abadhkdr)
cleanliness, 79 n. 164
clothes, black, 7, 67; clothing, white,	'Id al‑Adha, 7
	67
coffins, 32, 60	ld ail‑Akbir, 7
conception, prayers for, 45, (text)	'Id al‑Fitr, 7, 63
	126	'Id al‑Ofiadir, 7, 8
Covenant, Day of the, 64	illness, amulets for, 48
cremation, 60	images, 66
		impurity, 27 ff., 41, 59; causes of.
dead, prayer for, 31, 60		27, 28, 29, 41
declaration, night of, 7	ink, black, 7
departure, prayers on, 45	inv,oc,,itions. 12 ff., 42 ff.
depilation. 9. 79 n.164	Islarn, High, 5
dirges, 5	ivory, 29
dishes, 9
dogs, 29	law, BaW'i. main sources for, 72
doors, 9		n 9; lslainiic (see also sharl'a). 6. 7.
dowrv, 32		9; laiws, 13aiii‑,i'i, 37: Babi, 30. 37